abstract: With the status of nuclear proliferation around the world becoming more and more complex, nuclear forensics methods are needed to restrain the unlawful usage of nuclear devices. Lithium-ion batteries are present ubiquitously in consumer electronic devices nowadays. More importantly, the materials inside the batteries have the potential to be used as neutron detectors, just like the activation foils used in reactor experiments. Therefore, in a nuclear weapon detonation incident, these lithium-ion batteries can serve as sensors that are spatially distributed. In order to validate the feasibility of such an approach, Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) models are built for various lithium-ion batteries, as well as neutron transport from different fission nuclear weapons. To obtain the precise battery compositions for the MCNP models, a destructive inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis is utilized. The same battery types are irradiated in a series of reactor experiments to validate the MCNP models and the methodology. The MCNP nuclear weapon radiation transport simulations are used to mimic the nuclear detonation incident to study the correlation between the nuclear reactions inside the batteries and the neutron spectra. Subsequently, the irradiated battery activities are used in the SNL-SAND-IV code to reconstruct the neutron spectrum for both the reactor experiments and the weapon detonation simulations. Based on this study, empirical data show that the lithium-ion batteries have the potential to serve as widely distributed neutron detectors in this simulated environment to (1) calculate the nuclear device yield, (2) differentiate between gun and implosion fission weapons, and (3) reconstruct the neutron spectrum of the device. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2017

abstract: This work describes the investigation of novel cathode and anode materials. Specifically, several mixed polyanion compounds were evaluated as cathodes for Li and Na-ion batteries. Clathrate compounds composed of silicon or germanium arranged in cage-like structures were studied as anodes for Li-ion batteries. Nanostructured Cu4(OH)6SO4 (brochantite) platelets were synthesized using polymer-assisted titration and microwave-assisted hydrothermal methods. These nanostructures exhibited a capacity of 474 mAh/g corresponding to the full utilization of the copper redox in an conversion reaction. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) studies were preformed to understand the mechanism and structural changes. A microwave hydrothermal synthesis was developed to prepare a series compounds based on jarosite, AM3(SO4)2(OH)6 (A = K, Na; M = Fe, V). Both the morphology and electrochemical properties showed a compositional dependence. At potentials >1.5 V vs. Li/Li+, an insertion-type reaction was observed in Na,Fe-jarosite but not in K,Fe-jarosite. Reversible insertion-type reactions were observed in both vanadium jarosites between 1 – 4 V with capacities around 40 - 60 mAh/g. Below 1 V vs. Li/Li+, all four jarosite compounds underwent conversion reactions with capacities ~500 mAh/g for the Fe-jarosites. The electrochemical properties of hydrogen titanium phosphate sulfate, H0.4Ti2(PO4)2.4(SO4)0.6 (HTPS), a new mixed polyanion material with NASICON structure was reported. A capacity of 148 mAh/g corresponding to2 Li+ insertion per formula unit was observed. XRD and XPS were used to characterize the HTPS before and after cycling and to identify the lithium sites. Evaluation of the HTPS in Na-ion cell was also performed, and a discharge capacity of 93 mAh/g was observed. A systematic investigation of the role of the processing steps, such as ball-milling and acid/base etching, on the electrochemical properties of a silicon clathrate compound with nominal composition of Ba8Al16Si30 was performed. According to the transmission electron microscope (TEM), XPS, and electrochemical analysis, very few Li atoms can be electrochemically inserted, but the introduction of disorder through ball-milling resulted in higher capacity, while the oxidation layer made by the acid/base treatment prevented the reation. The electrochemical property of germanium clathrate was also investigated, unlike the silicon clathrate, the germanium one underwent a conversion reaction. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemistry 2017

abstract: As one of the most promising materials for high capacity electrode in next generation of lithium ion batteries, silicon has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Advanced characterization techniques and atomic simulations helped to depict that the lithiation/delithiation of silicon electrode involves processes including large volume change (anisotropic for the initial lithiation of crystal silicon), plastic flow or softening of material dependent on composition, electrochemically driven phase transformation between solid states, anisotropic or isotropic migration of atomic sharp interface, and mass diffusion of lithium atoms. Motivated by the promising prospect of the application and underlying interesting physics, mechanics coupled with multi-physics of silicon electrodes in lithium ion batteries is studied in this dissertation. For silicon electrodes with large size, diffusion controlled kinetics is assumed, and the coupled large deformation and mass transportation is studied. For crystal silicon with small size, interface controlled kinetics is assumed, and anisotropic interface reaction is studied, with a geometry design principle proposed. As a preliminary experimental validation, enhanced lithiation and fracture behavior of silicon pillars via atomic layer coatings and geometry design is studied, with results supporting the geometry design principle we proposed based on our simulations. Through the work documented here, a consistent description and understanding of the behavior of silicon electrode is given at continuum level and some insights for the future development of the silicon electrode are provided. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering 2014

In the current age of fast-depleting conventional energy sources, top priority is given to exploring non-conventional energy sources, designing highly efficient energy storage systems and converting existing machines/instruments/devices into energy-efficient ones. ‘Energy efficiency’ is one of the important challenges for today’s scientific and research community, worldwide. In line with this demand, the current research was focused on developing two highly energy-efficient devices – field emitters and Li-ion batteries, using beneficial properties of carbon nanotubes (CNT). Interface-engineered, directly grown CNTs were used as cathode in field emitters, while similar structure was applied as anode in Li-ion batteries. Interface engineering was found to offer minimum resistance to electron flow and strong bonding with the substrate. Both field emitters and Li-ion battery anodes were benefitted from these advantages, demonstrating high energy efficiency. Field emitter, developed during this research, could be characterized by low turn-on field, high emission current, very high field enhancement factor and extremely good stability during long-run. Further, application of 3-dimensional design to these field emitters resulted in achieving one of the highest emission current densities reported so far. The 3-D field emitter registered 27 times increase in current density, as compared to their 2-D counterparts. These achievements were further followed by adding new functionalities, transparency and flexibility, to field emitters, keeping in view of current demand for flexible displays. A CNT-graphene hybrid structure showed appreciable emission, along with very good transparency and flexibility. Li-ion battery anodes, prepared using the interface-engineered CNTs, have offered 140% increment in capacity, as compared to conventional graphite anodes. Further, it has shown very good rate capability and an exceptional ‘zero capacity degradation’ during long cycle operation. Enhanced safety and charge transfer mechanism of this novel anode structure could be explained from structural characterization. In an attempt to progress further, CNTs were coated with ultrathin alumina by atomic layer deposition technique. These alumina-coated CNT anodes offered much higher capacity and an exceptional rate capability, with very low capacity degradation in higher current densities. These highly energy efficient CNT based anodes are expected to enhance capacities of future Li-ion batteries.

This work developed a novel experiment in order to determine the operational effects on a Lithium-ion battery (LIB) when a test resulting in non-catastrophic damage is performed. Accepted industry standards were used as a basis to develop a nail penetration test that would puncture a cell approximately halfway through during normal cycling at a rate of 1C, then allow the cell to continue cycling to determine how its operation was affected. The cells under test continued cycling after the punctures, showing that the experiment would be able to provide useful information on the topic. The experiment was found to be successful in simulating the operation of a cell in an abusive environment, such as those seen in electric vehicles and aerospace applications.<div><br></div><div>The results of these experiments showed that a sharp increase in temperature is observed immediately after the puncture, similar to cells that underwent tests with full penetrations. The temperatures then slowly decreased during the first few cycles after the puncture as the generated heat was dissipated through convection. The experiments also showed that it is possible for a LIB under test to continue operating for a short time after being punctured. However, the capacity and useful life of the cells were greatly reduced. The initial capacity of each cell decreased by approximately 11% after the initial impact, then continued decreasing at an accelerated rate during the ensuing cycling. The lifetime of the cells was also greatly reduced, with each cell reaching its end of life within approximately 15-75 cycles after the punctures. An analysis of the incremental capacity curves of the cells indicated that accelerated aging occurred due to both a loss of active material and a loss of lithium inventory. The information gained from the experiments gives insight into the operation of cells that experience abusive environments and will be useful in designing improved control systems, as well as promoting the development of more robust testing and safety standards for different types of cells.<br></div>

Volvo Construction Equipment is investigating the potential of hybrid wheel loaders. To determine if this new hybrid wheel loader concept is preferable from an environmental point of view to the latest G- series Volvo wheel loader, a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) has been performed  on the Volvo L150G wheel loader and a hybrid wheel loader concept. The complete machines have been studied throughout their life cycle: raw material extraction, material processing, manufacturing processes, transportation, use phase, and end of life. In order to quantitatively assess the environmental impact of all lifecycle stages, five different environmental indicators have been used: global warming potential, abiotic resource depletion potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential and ozone depletion potential. In addition, a sensitivity analysis and two weighting methods are used to interpret the results. The results show that a hybrid wheel loader concept reduces environmental impacts significantly compared to a conventional L150G, except the impact category ADP (element). Moreover, the use phase has by far the greatest impact within the life cycle, for most impact categories (90% of the total life cycle impact). A sensitivity analysis on use phase with impacts also showed the limitations for use in China. / Volvo Construction Equipment undersöker potentialen av hybrid hjullastare. För att avgöra om ett hybrid hjullastare koncept har fördelar ur miljösynpunkt jämfört med en G-serien Volvo hjullastare har en jämförande livscykelanalys (LCA) utförts på Volvo L150G hjullastare och ett hybrid hjullastarkoncept. De kompletta maskinerna har studerats under hela deras livscykel: utvinning av råmaterial, materialbearbetning, tillverkningsprocesser, transport, användningsfas och slutet av skrotningsfasen. För att kvantitativt kunna bedöma miljökonsekvenserna av alla livscykelnskeden har fem olika miljöindikatorer använts: global uppvärmningspotential, abiotiska resursutarmningspotential, försurningspotential, övergödningspotential och ozonnedbrytingspotential. En känslighetsanalys och två viktningsmetoder har tillämpats för att tolka resultaten. Resultaten visar att ett hybrid hjullastarkoncept minskar miljöpåverkan avsevärt jämfört med en konventionell L150G, förutom påverkan från kategorin resursutarmningspotential. Dessutom har användningsprocessen i särklass störst påverkan inom livscykeln för de flesta effekt kategorier (90% av den totala livscykelpåverkan). En känslighetsanalys på användningsprocessen och dess effekter visade också på begränsningar för användning i Kina.

In order to replace diesel energy in the transportation sector as well as to reduce the emission of green house gases (GHGs) and avoid air pollution for a sustainable future, electrification of vehicles is one of the most popular topics today. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) technology is a promising technology for electrification of automobiles. It uses both internal combustion engine and electric motor for propulsion. The battery pack that propels the electric machine can be recharged from grid electricity and from kinetic energy converted from regenerative braking. In this thesis, field test data from a Volvo V70 prototype in a 2010 study by Volvo and Vattenfall (ETC, Volvo, Vattenfall, 2010) was analyzed with Matlab to give a better understanding of the usage of PHEVs and the performance of lithium-ion battery. Several conclusions were obtained in this thesis from the analyzed data. It was found that average and maximum driving speed in Diesel Mode is faster than that in Electric Mode. Different drivers had different preference of driving speed. Driving distance vary in different months; longer distance was running under Diesel Mode; A considerable number of 370 kg carbon dioxide emission was saved by using electric energy instead of diesel energy for the studied car during one year. Battery performance in cold temperature conditions needs to be considered and the vehicle was switched to Diesel Mode from Electric Mode when SOC falls below 30%.

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Date:                                       2022-06-01 Level:                                      Bachelor thesis in Business Administration, 15 cr Institution:                              School of Business, Society and Engineering, Mälardalen University Authors:                                 João Vitor Barroso França          Karl Isaksson            Alex Josefsson                                                 (99/04/01)                                (97/10/31)                 (95/09/08) Title:                                        LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES FROM A CLEAN ENERGY PERSPECTIVE: The Case of Northvolt Supervisor:                              Konstantin Lampou Keywords:                               Northvolt, Lithium-Ion Battery, SDG, Sustainability, Clean energy Research question:                  How does a company in the Lithium-Ion Battery Industry contribute to affordable and clean energy for all? The case of Northvolt Purpose:                                  The purpose of this study aims at understanding what values and implementations Northvolt has in its business to integrate targets from the UN’s SDG number seven. Because of the complexity of the research area, the authors adopted an extensive literature review on articles concerning corporate social responsibility (CSR), sustainable development (SD), and Lithium-Ion batteries. Method:                                   This research was conducted through interpretive, inductive, and exploratory logic, together with a qualitative case-study research approach, where six different managers from Northvolt were interviewed, and secondary data related to Northvolt, and the Lithium-Ion battery Industry was collected and analyzed. Conclusion:                             The authors concluded that, with a vertically integrated business model, Northvolt is a disruptor in the LIB industry. Additionally, the company focuses more extensively on reaching targets beyond the UN’s SDGs. As a booming market globally, challenges around sustainability, carbon footprint transparency, and reaching global demand for the products are extensive. Northvolt’s business revolves around innovation and the company has a strict sustainable approach in a very energy-intensive industry. Northvolt’s vision is to create the greenest battery on the market, which can indicate that CSR values overlap with business operations. Northvolt contributes to global goals by taking all elements of the supply chain into account.

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