The diploma thesis brings a description and realization of new measuring devices which are designed to support student´s laboratory practice of air flow measurement techniques. The new devices and laboratory exercises help students get experience of several methods of measuring which they get to know during mandatory Bachelor's and Master's study programmes. The paper also includes a theoretical background, the knowledge of which is necessary for mastering the issue. Moreover, the paper comprises a literary search of sensors and a market research. The second part of the thesis presents possibilities of the laboratory workplace, and the results of the measurements of the new laboratory devices used for sample laboratory exercises.

The aim of this work is to theoretically evaluate the test (type and routine) of synchronous generators and then practically measure and evaluate in the resulting protocol type. The theoretical part contains an analysis of standards for individual tests and a description of the actual design in the test room of electrical machines. Part of this work is to show the cost of the tests with the analysis of the incremental costs and measurement uncertainty.

Master’s thesis in the theoretical part deals with literature review on the topic of measurement errors and measurement uncertainties. The practical part deals with the simulation of additional capacitive and resistive load on the amplitude and phase error during shunts based measurement. For this simulation is used mathematical apparatus of cascade matrix of two-ports and their connections. For the actual simulation is used script for MATLAB. Furthermore, the work deals with the design of voltage follower to eliminate simulated errors and its practical realization. The last part deals with the design of the coaxial multiplexer for switching current shunts developed in the Czech Metrological Institute in Brno.

<p>Ova disertacija sadrži analizu mogućnosti merenja brzih impulsnih<br />napona i izražavanja odgovarajuće merne nesigurnosti. Dokazano je da<br />je moguće izvršiti numeričku simulaciju odziva mernog sistema na<br />impuls brzine porasta reda veličine pikosekunde. Izražena je merna<br />nesigurnost kapacitivnog razdelnika napona Monte Karlo metodom.<br />Prikazan je način konstruisanja kapacitivnog razdelnika napona sa<br />talasovodnim prilagodnim otporom. Konstruisano je više tipova<br />kapacitivnih razdelnika napona izuzetno dobrih karakteristika. Na<br />osnovu dobijenih rezultata je odabran kapacitivni razdelnik napona<br />najboljih karakteristika i izražena je njegova merna nesigurnost</p> / <p>This thesis contains an analysis of the possibilities for measurement of very<br />fast pulse voltages and proper expression of measurement uncertainty. It has<br />been proven that it is possible to perform numerical simulation to the<br />response of the very fast pulse voltage with rise time at the order of<br />picoseconds of the measuring system. Measurement uncertainty of<br />capacitive voltage dividers is expressed by Monte Carlo method. The way of<br />constructing capacitive voltage dividers with a waveguide resistance is<br />shown in this thesis. The design of four types of capacitive voltage dividers<br />with extremely good features are shown. Based on these results, capacitive<br />voltage divider with best characteristics is selected and its measurement<br />uncertainty is expressed.</p>

Surface quality plays a vital role in controlling the function performance of the workpiece. With the development of the measuring technique, areal surface measurement has been widely applied in the industry. However, estimating the uncertainty of areal surface measurement is still a challenge. Except for the metrological characteristics of the measurement system, measurement conditions should be considered for uncertainty evaluation. The dissertation investigates the influence of measurement settings on surface measurement. A silver-plated surface, three different rough grinding surfaces, and three different rough cylindrical grinding surfaces were measured using structured illumination microscopy. The measurements were at the different objective lenses, vertical scanning interval, exposure time, and sample tilt. The results show that the measurement settings influence the non-measured points, measurement noise, and areal surface texture parameters. Therefore, according to the investigation, the sample tilt and exposure time should also be included in the uncertainty budget. An approach was proposed to investigate the influence of non-measured points on the areal surface texture parameters. The relation between the non-measured points ratio and measurement settings was investigated, and how the areal surface texture parameters changed due to the non-measured points was studied. Moreover, an approach based on the metrological characteristic method was proposed to estimate the uncertainty due to the measurement noise. This method can be extended to the uncertainty evaluation due to other metrological characteristics. Additionally, an approach based on the Monte Carlo Method was proposed to estimate the measurement uncertainty due to different influences. This approach was verified as feasible in the practical measurement.

Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Bestimmung der Messunsicherheit bei der experimentellen Spannungsanalyse mittels Metallfoliendehnungsmessstreifen. Trotz langjähriger Verfügbarkeit von Dehnungsmessstreifen und den Kenntnissen über deren Wirkungsmechanismen, inklusive der damit verbundenen Abweichungen, existieren nur wenige Betrachtungen hinsichtlich der Messunsicherheit. Vor allem die große Anzahl möglicher Einflüsse und die daraus resultierenden systematischen Abweichungen, in Kombination mit einer fehlenden Möglichkeit zur Kalibrierung, stellen eine Herausforderung und meist einen hohen Aufwand dar. Diese komplexe Ausgangssituation wird anhand theoretischer und praktischer Untersuchungen analysiert und bewertet. Dabei wird das Ziel verfolgt, eine möglichst große Menge von Messaufgaben abzudecken, ohne zugleich eine übermäßig große Messunsicherheit hinnehmen zu müssen. Nach einer umfassenden Darstellung verschiedener Abweichungen werden zunächst die Einflüsse systematisiert. Darauf aufbauend werden Randbedingungen für häufig auftretende Messaufgaben abgeleitet und als Standardszenario zusammengefasst. Im anschließenden Abschnitt werden alle Einflüsse, die im Rahmen der Arbeit nicht empirisch untersucht werden können, mit Hilfe der Randbedingungen theoretisch betrachtet. Einen wesentlichen Anteil an der resultierenden Messunsicherheit besitzen dabei die Ermüdungserscheinungen und die Rückwirkung. Relevant, jedoch von untergeordneter Bedeutung, sind die Hysterese, das Kriechen und die Querempfindlichkeit. Im empirischen Teil wird ein modifizierter Versuchsstand zur Bestimmung des k-Faktors dargestellt, mit dem zeitgleich bis zu 36 Dehnungsmessstreifen untersucht werden können. Einen Schwerpunkt dabei bildet die Mechanik des verwendeten breiten Biegebalkens. Die Auswertung zeigt, dass die Richtungsabweichung der 72 untersuchten Dehnungsmessstreifen weniger als 1° beträgt. Die Messunsicherheit bezüglich des Nullpunktes bei der Dehnungsmessung resultiert vor allem aus der temperaturbedingten Scheindehnung. Deren Korrektur mit dem Polynom laut Datenblatt ist aufgrund der Unsicherheit der thermischen Ausdehnungskoeffizienten im Temperaturbereich von 0-30 °C von geringer Wirkung. Bei Langzeitmessungen ab etwa 30-50 Tagen ist trotz Abdeckung mit Polyurethan-Lack zudem die feuchtigkeitsspezifische Nullpunktdrift von Bedeutung. Die Empfindlichkeit der Dehnungsmessung wird durch die losspezifische Streuung des k-Faktors dominiert und ist nicht zeitabhängig. Abschließend werden alle untersuchten Einflüsse zusammengefasst und verglichen. Dadurch wird offensichtlich, dass durch gezielte Einschränkung der zulässigen Lastwechselzahl und der mechanischen Eigenschaften des Messobjektes im Standardszenario die Messunsicherheit um 23 % reduzierbar ist. Zusätzlich wird die Anpassung der Randbedingungen an eine Langzeitmessung mit erweitertem Temperaturbereich demonstriert.:1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation und Zielstellung 1.1.1 Motivation 1.1.2 Zielstellung und Abgrenzung der Arbeit 1.2 Verfahrensweise und Aufbau der Arbeit 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Abschätzung der Messunsicherheit 2.1.1 Systematik der Messabweichungen 2.1.2 Grundlagen der Messunsicherheit 2.1.3 Messunsicherheit nach GUM und GUM S1 2.1.4 Messaufgabenspezifische Messunsicherheit 2.2 Metallfolien-DMS 2.2.1 Messprinzip 2.2.2 Ursachen für Messabweichungen 2.2.3 Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung von Abweichungen 2.3 Statistische Methoden 2.3.1 Design of Experiments (DoE) 2.3.2 Statistische Methoden zur Versuchsauswertung 3 Entwurf eines Standardszenarios 3.1 Definition des Standardszenarios 3.2 Randbedingungen für das Standardszenario 3.2.1 Mensch 3.2.2 Messmittel 3.2.3 Versuchsdurchführung 3.2.4 Messobjekt 3.2.5 Umgebungsbedingungen 3.3 Ursachen und Effekte im Standardszenario 3.3.1 Applikation 3.3.2 Messmittel 3.3.3 Versuch 3.3.4 Umgebung 3.4 Angewandte Methoden zur Reduzierung von Abweichungen 3.4.1 Kompensationsverfahren 3.4.2 Korrektion von Abweichungen 4 Theoretische Betrachtung der Messunsicherheiten 4.1 Vorgehensweise bei der Abschätzung der Messunsicherheit 4.2 Messmittel 4.2.1 Messverstärker 4.2.2 Rauschen 4.3 Versuch 4.3.1 Querdehnungsempfindlichkeit 4.3.2 Ermüdungsverhalten 4.3.3 Hysterese 4.3.4 Kriechen 4.3.5 Rückwirkung 4.3.6 Linearität 4.4 Umgebungseinflüsse 4.4.1 Thermospannung 4.4.2 Thermische Drift 5 Empirische Untersuchung zur Messunsicherheit 5.1 Versuchsplanung 5.1.1 Versuchsbeschreibung 5.1.2 Versuchsmaterial und Personal 5.1.3 Versuchsplan 5.1.4 Versuchsablauf 5.2 Versuchsaufbau zur Bestimmung des k-Faktors 5.2.1 Theoretische Grundlagen zum Versuch 5.2.2 Probenmechanik des breiten Biegebalkens 5.2.3 Praktische Umsetzung der 4-Punkt-Biegung 5.3 Langzeitversuch 5.3.1 Versuchsaufbau und Datenerfassung 5.3.2 Umgebungsbedingungen 5.4 Auswertung der Versuche 5.4.1 Richtungsabweichung 5.4.2 Grundwiderstand 5.4.3 Nullpunkt 5.4.4 k-Faktor 6 Messunsicherheit für das Standardszenario und Zusammenfassung 6.1 Zusammenfassung des Standardszenarios 6.1.1 Messunsicherheit Standardszenario 6.1.2 Anpassung des Standardszenarios 6.2 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 6.2.1 Zusammenfassung 6.2.2 Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis Anhang A Nichtlinearität der Wheatstoneschen Messbrücke B Tabellen zum Standardszenario C Herleitungen zur theoretischen Abschätzung D Bestimmung der Materialkennwerte E Daten der einzelnen Messstellen des Versuchs F Ergänzungen zum Versuch G Ergänzungen zur Auswertung des Versuchs / This thesis deals with the determination of the measurement uncertainty in experimental stressanalysis using metal foil strain gauges. Despite the availability of strain gauges for many years and the knowledge of their mechanisms of action, including the associated errors, only a few considerations exist with regard to the measurement uncertainty. Particulary the large number of possible influences and the resulting systematic errors, in combination with a lack of possibility for calibration, represent a challenge and usually a high expense. This complex initial situation is analysed and evaluated on the basis of theoretical and practical investigations. The aim is to cover as many measurement tasks as possible without having to accept an excessively high measurement uncertainty at the same time. After a comprehensive presentation of various errors, the influences are first systematized. Based on this, boundary conditions for frequently occurring measurement tasks are derived and summarized as a standard scenario. In the following section, all influences that cannot be investigated empirically within the scope of the work are considered theoretically with the help of the boundary conditions. The fatigue damage and the reinforcement effect have a significant share in the resulting measurement uncertainty. Relevant, but of secondary importance, are hysteresis, creep and transverse sensitivity. In the empirical part, a modified test rig for determining the k-factor is presented, with which up to 36 strain gauges can be measured simultaneously. One focus is on the mechanics of the wide bending beam used. The evaluation shows that the error due to misalignment of the 72 examined strain gauges is less than 1°. The measurement uncertainty with regard to the zero-point in the strain measurement results primarily from the thermal output of the strain gauge. Its correction with the polynomial according to the data sheet is of little effect due to the uncertainty of the thermal expansion coefficients in the temperature range of 0-30 °C. In the case of long-term measurements from about 30-50 days, the moisture-specific zero-point drift is also significant despite covering in polyurethane lacquer. The sensitivity of the strain measurement is dominated by the batch-specific scatter of the k-factor and is not time-dependent. Finally, all examined influences are summarised and compared. This illustrates that the measurement uncertainty can be reduced by 23 % in the standard scenario by specifically limiting the permissible number of load cycles and mechanical properties of the test object. In addition, the adaptation of the boundary conditions to a long-term measurement with extended temperature range is demonstrated.:1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation und Zielstellung 1.1.1 Motivation 1.1.2 Zielstellung und Abgrenzung der Arbeit 1.2 Verfahrensweise und Aufbau der Arbeit 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Abschätzung der Messunsicherheit 2.1.1 Systematik der Messabweichungen 2.1.2 Grundlagen der Messunsicherheit 2.1.3 Messunsicherheit nach GUM und GUM S1 2.1.4 Messaufgabenspezifische Messunsicherheit 2.2 Metallfolien-DMS 2.2.1 Messprinzip 2.2.2 Ursachen für Messabweichungen 2.2.3 Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung von Abweichungen 2.3 Statistische Methoden 2.3.1 Design of Experiments (DoE) 2.3.2 Statistische Methoden zur Versuchsauswertung 3 Entwurf eines Standardszenarios 3.1 Definition des Standardszenarios 3.2 Randbedingungen für das Standardszenario 3.2.1 Mensch 3.2.2 Messmittel 3.2.3 Versuchsdurchführung 3.2.4 Messobjekt 3.2.5 Umgebungsbedingungen 3.3 Ursachen und Effekte im Standardszenario 3.3.1 Applikation 3.3.2 Messmittel 3.3.3 Versuch 3.3.4 Umgebung 3.4 Angewandte Methoden zur Reduzierung von Abweichungen 3.4.1 Kompensationsverfahren 3.4.2 Korrektion von Abweichungen 4 Theoretische Betrachtung der Messunsicherheiten 4.1 Vorgehensweise bei der Abschätzung der Messunsicherheit 4.2 Messmittel 4.2.1 Messverstärker 4.2.2 Rauschen 4.3 Versuch 4.3.1 Querdehnungsempfindlichkeit 4.3.2 Ermüdungsverhalten 4.3.3 Hysterese 4.3.4 Kriechen 4.3.5 Rückwirkung 4.3.6 Linearität 4.4 Umgebungseinflüsse 4.4.1 Thermospannung 4.4.2 Thermische Drift 5 Empirische Untersuchung zur Messunsicherheit 5.1 Versuchsplanung 5.1.1 Versuchsbeschreibung 5.1.2 Versuchsmaterial und Personal 5.1.3 Versuchsplan 5.1.4 Versuchsablauf 5.2 Versuchsaufbau zur Bestimmung des k-Faktors 5.2.1 Theoretische Grundlagen zum Versuch 5.2.2 Probenmechanik des breiten Biegebalkens 5.2.3 Praktische Umsetzung der 4-Punkt-Biegung 5.3 Langzeitversuch 5.3.1 Versuchsaufbau und Datenerfassung 5.3.2 Umgebungsbedingungen 5.4 Auswertung der Versuche 5.4.1 Richtungsabweichung 5.4.2 Grundwiderstand 5.4.3 Nullpunkt 5.4.4 k-Faktor 6 Messunsicherheit für das Standardszenario und Zusammenfassung 6.1 Zusammenfassung des Standardszenarios 6.1.1 Messunsicherheit Standardszenario 6.1.2 Anpassung des Standardszenarios 6.2 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 6.2.1 Zusammenfassung 6.2.2 Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis Anhang A Nichtlinearität der Wheatstoneschen Messbrücke B Tabellen zum Standardszenario C Herleitungen zur theoretischen Abschätzung D Bestimmung der Materialkennwerte E Daten der einzelnen Messstellen des Versuchs F Ergänzungen zum Versuch G Ergänzungen zur Auswertung des Versuchs

Ett på marknaden nyligen introducerat GNSS-instrument är Leica GS18 T med inbyggd lutningskompensator, baserad på kombinerad GNSS- och tröghetsnavigeringsteknik (INS), som gör att mätstången med GNSS-instrumentet inte behöver centreras över den punkt som ska mätas in. Förutom att utföra snabbare mätningar möjliggör lutningskompensatortekniken inmätning av dolda punkter där konventionell GNSS-mätning normalt inte är möjlig utan mer tidskrävande indirekta metoder måste användas. Instrumentet har även avancerad GNSS-signalspårningsteknik som möjliggör mätning i svåra miljöer. På uppdrag av Lantmäteriet har som ett inledande test av Leica GS18 T lägesosäkerheten vid nätverks-RTK-mätning med lutande mätstång undersökts i tre situationer: vid mätning i olika lutningsgrader i både normal och svår mätmiljö, vid lutning mot olika väderstreck för att studera lutningsriktningens eventuella inverkan samt vid inmätning av hushörn som exempel på ett tillämpningsområde. I det senare fallet jämfördes resultatet med vad som erhålls med en indirekt metod, i detta fall dold punkt genom inbindning, som mätning med lutningskompensator möjligen skulle kunna ersätta. Analys av lägesosäkerheten baseras på beräkningar av standardosäkerhet, RMS (Root Mean Square) och medelavvikelse. Mätningarna med olika lutningsgrader på mätstången resulterade i en lägesosäkerhet på cm-nivå i plan för både normal och svår mätmiljö. Lägesosäkerheten i höjd hamnade på mm-nivå i normal mätmiljö och på cm-nivå i svår mätmiljö. Vidare pekar resultaten på att mätstångens lutningsriktning påverkar lägesosäkerheten. Orsaken till detta är dock inte klarlagd och kräver vidare undersökning. Inmätning av hushörn gav en medelavvikelse på ca 12 mm när mätstången lutades 30°. Metoden dold punkt genom inbindning gav generellt en lägre medelavvikelse, även om skillnaden är relativt liten (4 mm som lägst). En sammanfattande bedömning är att instrumentet fungerar bra vid detaljmätning, åtminstone vid positionsosäkerhetskrav på cm-nivå. / A recently introduced GNSS instrument on the market is Leica GS18 T with tilt compensation, based on GNSS/Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) integration, with no need to centre the survey pole with the GNSS instrument over the target point being measured. Besides making surveying faster, the tilt compensation technique enables measuring of hidden points where the use of conventional GNSS measuring normally is not possible without more time-consuming methods. The instrument also has advanced GNSS signal tracking which makes surveying in challenging environments possible. In this study, the Leica GS18 T has on behalf of Lantmäteriet been tested through studying the measurement uncertainty in network RTK measurement with tilted survey pole in three different situations: with the survey pole tilted in various degrees in both favourable and challenging survey environments; with tilt towards north, east, south and west to test if the tilt direction would affect the result; and for surveying of building corners as a possible field of application. In the latter case, the result was compared with what can be achieved with the conventional hidden point method using intersection of distances. The analysis of the measurement uncertainty was based on calculations of standard uncertainty, RMS (Root Mean Square) and mean deviation. The measurement uncertainty from the first part of the test was on cm-level horizontally, both in favourable and challenging survey environments, and in height on mm-level in favourable survey environment and on cm-level in challenging survey environment. Further, the results indicate that the tilt direction affects measurement uncertainty. The reason for this is not clarified and needs further investigation. The measurements of building corners resulted in a mean deviation of approximately 12 mm when the survey pole was tilted 30°. The hidden point method using intersection of distances generally resulted in lower mean deviation, even though the difference is relatively small (4 mm at best). To summarize, Leica GS18 T seems to be well suited for measuring with tilt in detailed surveying, at least if the requirements of position uncertainty is on cm-level.

Digitala terrängmodeller (DTM:er) används i samhället för många viktigafunktioner och behöver därför hållas uppdaterade när förändringar sker.Sverige har en nationell höjdmodell (NH) som innehåller höjddata över helalandet. Uppdateringen av NH förlitar sig mestadels på flygburen laserskanning(FLS). Den flygburna laserskanningsmetoden har generellt en högremätosäkerhet i tätbevuxen skog. Vid exploateringar eller framtida planeradeförändringar i skogsområden kan en mer exakt modell behövas. En utvärdering har genomförts av den handhållna laserskannern ZEB-REVO med syfte att bestämma vilken mätosäkerhet som kan uppnås i tätbevuxenskog, undersöka hur mätosäkerheten förändras med punktavståndet i denproducerade DTM:en samt vilken mätosäkerhet ZEB-REVO har i jämförelsemed NH i samma område. I studien har två skogstyper inkluderats bestående av granskog och tallskog.Mätosäkerheten har bestämts genom att mäta in terrestra kontrollprofiler medtotalstation. För att kunna genomföra en inmätning av kontrollprofiler har ettbruksnät etablerats genom ett fullständigt anslutet polygontåg viahelsatsmätning. De kända punkterna som polygontåget anslutits mot har mättsin med fri stationsetablering via SmartWorx. Resultatet visar att mätosäkerheten förbättras när punktavståndet reduceras.Mätningarna med ZEB-REVO har potential att uppnå en lägre mätosäkerhetän NH i båda skogstyperna. Resultatet för tallskogen visar att ZEB-REVO kanuppnå en lägesosäkerhet på 4-centimetersnivå och en medelavvikelse i höjd på0,018 m mot inmätta kontrollprofiler. Jämförelsen mot kontrollprofiler förområdet i granskogen visar att en medelavvikelse i höjd på 0,058 m gick attuppnå där. ZEB-REVO har potential att förbättra data i NH och data insamlad med ZEBREVOkan ligga till grund för terrängmodellering för projektering.Instrumentet kan även uppnå den bästa noggrannhetsklassningen, klass 1 i SISTS21144:2016 där en maximal medelavvikelse i höjd inte får överstiga 0,02m. / Digital terrain models (DTMs) are used in society for many importantfunctions and therefore need to be kept up to date when changes occur.Sweden has a national height model (NH) that provides height data across thewhole country. The update of NH mostly relies on airborne laser scanning(ALS). The airborne laser scanning method generally has a highermeasurement uncertainty in dense forests. When exploitation or futureplanned changes in forest areas occur, a more accurate model may need to beproduced. An evaluation has been carried out of the handheld laser scanner ZEB-REVO with the aim of determining the instrument's measurement uncertainty indense forests, evaluating how the measurement uncertainty changes with thepoint distance in the produced DTM and the measurement uncertainty ZEBREVOmay achieve in comparison with NH in the same area. The study included two different types of forest consisting of spruce and pineforest trees, respectively. Measurement uncertainty has been determined bymeasuring terrestrial control profiles with a total station. In order to be ableto carry out the measurement of control profiles, a working control networkhas been established through a fully connected traverse using full rounds ofmeasurement. The known points to which the traverse is connected have beenmeasured as free stations using SmartWorx. The results show that the measurement uncertainty improves when the pointdistance is reduced. The measurements with ZEB-REVO have the potential toachieve a lower measurement uncertainty than NH in both forest types. Theresults for the pine forest show that ZEB-REVO can achieve a 4 centimetrelevel uncertainty and an average deviation of height of 0,018 m against themeasured control profiles. The comparison with control profiles for the areain the spruce forest shows that an average deviation in height of 0,058 m wasachievable. ZEB-REVO has the potential to improve data in NH and data collected withZEB-REVO can form the basis for terrain modelling for projectionwork. Theinstrument can also achieve the best accuracy rating 1, for which themaximum mean deviation in height must not exceed 0.02 m.

Digitala terrängmodeller (DTM:er) är ett vanligt förekommande verktyg i planering av olika samhällsutvecklande projekt inom stat, kommun och den privata sektorn. Inom planering för byggnationer av väg och järnväg används ofta SIS-TS 21144:2016 som ett dokument för styrning av produktionsprocessen vid framtagning av DTM:er, eller markmodeller. Med anledning av att ny teknik öppnar för möjligheter till snabbare, effektivare och klimatsmartare insamling av data, har denna studie till syfte att utvärdera Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) med Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) från YellowScan och dess mätosäkerhet i höjd. I denna undersökning jämförs resultatet från studien med klass 2 i SIS-TS 21144:2016 för flyghöjderna 50 m och 80 m samt för skanningsvinklarna 0 (lod), 10, 20 och 40 grader. Platsen för studien är belägen strax sydväst om Gävle i en nedlagd grustäkt med både hårt packat och något lösare underlag. Storleken för studieområdet begränsades till 200 x 300 m, vilket ger en 6 ha stor yta. Med utrustning för mätning med GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) mättes två stompunkter in med Nätverks-RTK (Real Time Kinematic). Därefter skapades ett stomnät med åtta punkter. Totalt mättes 26 kontrollytor in för jämförelser mot insamlade LiDAR-data. Datainsamlingen utfördes med obemannad flygfarkost (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, UAV), GeoDrone X4L, utrustad med LiDAR-skannern YellowScan Surveyor meden integrerad IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) från Applanix. Tillsammans bildade dessa enheter ett obemannat flygsystem (UAS) som kunde fjärrstyras och kommunicera sin position. All bearbetning utfördes i programvara från Terrasolid, baserat på data från flygrutten som först bearbetats i YellowScan CloudStation. Punkterna klassificerades för att urskilja marklassade punkter som användes vid generering av DTM:er. En justering av punktmolnet gjordes med avsikt att höja marklassade punkter för att motverka det brus som förekommer i data. Kontrollytorna kunde nu jämföras mot DTM:en och analyseras. Resultaten i studien visar att YellowScan Surveyor uppnår ett Root Mean Square (RMS) i höjd på 0,024 m vid 50 meters flyghöjd, vilket innebär 0,047 m utvidgad mätosäkerhet (2-sigma, 95 %). Även vid 80 meter uppnås relativt låg mätosäkerhet i höjd med ett RMS på 0,040 m. Resultaten i studien visar också att påverkan av mätning i en större skanningsvinkel inte är den enda faktor som försämrar resultatet. / Digital terrain models (DTMs) are a commonly used tool in planning various development projects within the state, municipalities, and the private sector. In planning for road and rail construction, the Swedish technical specification SIS-TS21144:2016 is often used as a document for controlling the production process of DTMs. Given that new technology opens the possibilities for faster, more efficient, and climate-smart data collection, this study aims to evaluate Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) with Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) from YellowScan and to evaluate the measurement uncertainty in height. In this study, the results of the study are compared with class 2 SIS-TS 21144:2016 for the flight heights 50 m and 80 m and the scanning angles 0 (in nadir), 10, 20 and 40 degrees. The site of the study is located just southwest of Gävle in a closed gravel pit with both hard packed and slightly looser substrates. The size of the study area was limited to 200 x 300 m, equivalent to 6 hectares. With Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) equipment, two control points were measured with Network-RTK (Real Time Kinematic). Subsequently, a control network of eight points was created. A total of 26 control grids were measured for comparisons of collected LiDAR data. The data collection was carried out with the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) GeoDrone X4L equipped with LiDAR Scanner YellowScan Surveyor with an integrated Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) from Applanix. Together, these units formed an UAS that could be remotely controlled and communicate its position. All processing was performed in software from Terrasolid, based on data from the flight route that was first processed in YellowScan CloudStation. The points were classified to distinguish ground points used in the generation of the DTM. An adjustment of the point cloud was made with the intention of raising ground level points to reduce the noise present in the data. The control grids could then be compared to the DTM and analysed. The results of the study show that YellowScan Surveyor achieves a Root Mean Square (RMS) in height of 0,024 m at 50 meters flight altitude, which equals 0,047m expanded measurement uncertainty (2 sigma level, 95 %). Even at 80 meters, relatively low uncertainty is achieved with an RMS of 0,040 m. The results of the study indicate that the influence of measurements at a wider scanning angle is not the only factor that deteriorates the results.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T18:12:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Denise Torreao Correa da Silva.pdf: 13435475 bytes, checksum: 0ee13ef29957b217cb6d5b50c30944cf (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-16 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / To estimate the measurement uncertainty of the pure-tone audiometry by air-conduction, in the frequencies from 250 Hz to 8000 Hz, and bone-conduction, at frequencies of 500 Hz to 4000 Hz. Method: This is an observational, descriptive and cross sectional study. Accuracy measurement tests under repeatability conditions were conducted (same measurement procedure, operator, measuring system, operating conditions and site, in a short time interval). Each of the nine participants took part in two trials with five repetitions each through air and bone conduction, in the right and left ear. In Trial 1 the interval between each repetition was five minutes. In Trial 2 the interval between repetitions was sixty minutes. To calculate the combined uncertainty the type A uncertainty, derived from repeatability, and Type B uncertainty derived from the audiometer calibration certificate, the audiometer resolution, and the conditions of the test environment were considered. Results: There was no statistically significant difference intra-individuals in different time intervals (p> 0,05), in both air and bone conduction. The median of type A uncertainty ranged from 0 dB to 2,7 dB in the right ear, and 0 dB to 3,5 dB in the left ear for air conduction. In bone conduction the median of type A uncertainty ranged from 2.2 dB to 2.7 dB in both ears. Type B uncertainties, for air and bone conduction, derived from the contribution of the equipment used for the test (0,4 dB), of the equipment resolution (1,4 dB), and the test environment (5,0 dB). Considering the median of type A uncertainty derived from accuracy measurement, and type B uncertainties mentioned above, the estimated of measurement uncertainty of pure tone audiometry, air and bone conduction, in this study, for the confidence level of 95% (k=1.96) and 95.45% (k=2.0) were 10 dB or 11 dB, for the frequencies tested, in both Trials 1 and Trial 2, in both ears. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the feasibility of accuracy measurement tests under repeatability conditions, as proposed in this work. In this study the contribution of type B uncertainties, derived from the audiometer calibration certificate, potentiometer and test environment, this latter being more prevalent, was higher than that of type A uncertainty derived from repeatability, indicating the need to keep control of these variables. The expression of measurement uncertainty can increase even more the sensitivity and specificity of audiometry, respectively increasing the rate of true positives and true negatives, since it is considered the gold standard. In this study the expanded uncertainty, for the confidence level of 95% and 95,45% ranged between 10 and 11 dB, in air and bone conduction. The reliability of the pure-tone audiometry test depends on the expression of its uncertainty; only so results obtained with the same subject in different places and times can be compared. Therefore the expression of uncertainty should be taken into consideration when delivering results and in preparing reports, for subsidizing decisions on hearing aids prescription, selection and adaptation procedures, as well as assessment of social security benefit payments, labor actions and health surveillance actions / Estimar a Incerteza de Medição no exame de audiometria tonal por via aérea, nas frequências de 250 Hz a 8 000 Hz, e por via óssea, nas frequências de 500 Hz a 4 000 Hz. Método: Nesta pesquisa, de natureza observacional, descritiva e transversal, foram realizados ensaios de precisão de medição sob condições de repetibilidade (mesmo procedimento de medição, operador, sistema de medição, condições de operação e mesmo local, em curto intervalo de tempo). Cada um dos nove participantes realizou dois ensaios, com cinco repetições de audiometria cada, por vias aérea e óssea, orelhas direita e esquerda. No Ensaio 1 o intervalo entre cada repetição foi de cinco minutos. No Ensaio 2 o intervalo entre as repetições foi de sessenta minutos. Para cálculo da incerteza padrão combinada considerou-se a incerteza do tipo A, derivada da repetibilidade, e as incertezas do tipo B, derivadas do certificado de calibração do audiômetro, da resolução do audiômetro, e das condições do ambiente de teste. Resultados: Para as vias aérea e óssea não houve diferença estatisticamente significante intraindivíduos nos diferentes intervalos de tempo (p > 0,05). A mediana da incerteza do tipo A variou de 0 dB a 2,7 dB, na orelha direita, e de 0 dB a 3,5 dB na orelha esquerda, para a via aérea. Na via óssea a mediana da incerteza do tipo A variou de 2,2 dB a 2,7 dB, em ambas as orelhas. As incertezas do tipo B, tanto para via aérea quanto para a via óssea, foram derivadas da contribuição do equipamento utilizado para o exame (0,4 dB), da resolução do equipamento (1,4 dB), e do ambiente de teste (5,0 dB). Levando-se em consideração a mediana das incertezas do tipo A e as incertezas do tipo B citadas acima, a estimativa da incerteza de medição da audiometria tonal por vias aérea e óssea, neste estudo, para os níveis da confiança de 95% (k=1,96) e 95,45% (k=2,0), foi de 10 dB ou 11 dB, nas frequências testadas, tanto no Ensaio 1 quanto no Ensaio 2, em ambas as orelhas. Conclusões: Este estudo demonstra a viabilidade de ensaios de precisão de medição sob condições de repetibilidade, conforme proposto neste trabalho. Neste estudo a contribuição das incertezas do tipo B, derivadas do certificado de calibração do audiômetro, do potenciômetro e do ambiente de teste, preponderando esta última, foi maior do que a incerteza do tipo A, derivada da repetibilidade, indicando a necessidade de manter-se controle sobre estas variáveis. A expressão da incerteza de medição da audiometria pode elevar, ainda mais, a sensibilidade, e a especificidade da audiometria, respectivamente aumentando a taxa de verdadeiros positivos e de verdadeiros negativos, uma vez que é considerada padrão ouro. Neste estudo a incerteza de medição expandida, para os níveis da confiança de 95% e 95,45% variou entre 10 dB e 11 dB, tanto para via aérea quanto para via óssea. A confiabilidade do exame de Audiometria Tonal, ou Audiometria de Tons Puros depende da expressão de sua incerteza; somente assim resultados obtidos com o mesmo sujeito, em locais e épocas diferentes, podem ser comparados. Portanto a expressão da incerteza deve ser levada em consideração quando da entrega de resultados e confecção de relatórios, seja para decisão sobre procedimentos de indicação, seleção e adaptação de aparelhos de amplificação sonora individual, assim como para avaliação de concessão de benefícios previdenciários, ações trabalhistas e ações de vigilância em saúde