The diploma thesis Anti-Monachism in the Bohemian Society in the Epoch of Enlightenment deals with reforms by Josef II., in particular with the abolishment of monasteries from view of the then documents appeared in support of the reforms in progress. The author selects some significant themes handled by the reform devotees. The main theme is the criterion of the men's nature. The related themes include: monks' asceticism, celibacy, monasteries as the quintessence of the baroque devoteness, and mendicant orders. In the context of their criticism, the authors of the texts in question refer to the epoch of early Christendom and to the emergence of the first monasteries. Therefore also the author of this diploma thesis pays attention to this historical period as well as to the contents of the anti-monarchistic texts. Key words: Anti-monarchismus - History of Christendom - Enlightenment - Men's Nature - Asceticism

[pt] A presente tese investiga uma forma nova de diálogo entre monges, o diálogo de experiência, focalizando o processo psicossocial de identidadealteridade religiosa. A pesquisa baseou-se em documentos e testemunho do Diálogo Inter-religioso Monástico (DIM), órgão ligado ao Conselho Pontifício para o Diálogo Inter-religioso (CPDI) do Vaticano, que reúne monges de mosteiros católicos do mundo inteiro, participando de comissões de diálogo com monges de outras tradições religiosas. Embora recente este tipo de diálogo indica uma tendência inovadora na relação entre as religiões ocidentais e orientais; e é fruto não apenas do esforço pessoal de alguns pioneiros, mas também das transformações religiosas e sociais que se aceleraram na atual etapa de mundialização. Assim sendo, após apresentar os fundamentos do monaquismo, tendo salientando as diferenças entre suas principais tendências e a referência a uma base comum, situo o desenvolvimento deste tipo de diálogo na perspectiva da história monástica cristã, do atual contexto de pluralismo religioso e de elaboração católica sobre o tema. A importância deste tipo de diálogo para o campo de estudo da religião reside em sua ênfase na experiência, em sua associação entre diálogo e contemplação (ou meditação), e no compartilhamento de práticas monásticas por membros de diferentes tradições religiosas. Ao mesmo tempo, como as experiências relatadas pelos monges estão enraizadas em uma vida religiosa tanto pessoal como comunitária e foram orientadas para o testemunho, elas permitiram um enfoque das representações históricas que relaciona estas representações às práticas religiosas, às experiências espirituais, e às histórias de vida dos monges e comunidades monásticas. A convergência da reflexão vinda de vários campos do conhecimento em direção à experiência transformou esta última em um ponto nodal de referência, em torno do qual foi possível integrar estes campos e estabelecer uma articulação com o testemunho, a narração e o processo psicossocial. Baseada na fenomenologia hermenêutica de Ricoeur e na concepção da consciência religiosa de Nabert, e tendo colocado em evidência a contribuição da psicologia social para esclarecer a dinâmica de identidade-alteridade entre o ego e o alter, a tese analisa o sentido, a formação e a consolidação de uma nova dinâmica desenvolvida no contexto do diálogo intermonástico, estudando-a do ponto de vista da comunidade monástica católica e de sua experiência viva e histórica de diálogo e contemplação. Esta rompe com a visão de subjetividades separadas e com a negação e exclusão da alteridade religiosa, chegando a uma perspectiva de unidade na pluralidade e a um novo tipo de identidade e espiritualidade dialogal. Tendo verificado a importância central desta dinâmica e seu sentido religioso para o desenvolvimento do diálogo entre contemplativos, a tese destaca não apenas a dimensão psicossocial desta dinâmica, mas seu enraizamento no mais profundo centro do ser, sublinhando a relação estabelecida pelos monges católicos entre o diálogo inter-religioso e seu diálogo com Deus. A concepção cristã da alteridade de Deus e do próximo foi determinante para a formulação e prática dialogal de reconhecimento mútuo e para as experiências monásticas de paz e harmonia entre os monges de diferentes religiões. É possível, portanto, distinguir a dinâmica de reconhecimento mútuo da dinâmica de autoafirmação e recusa do outro, relacionada à experiência de negação da diferença, de guerra e eliminação da alteridade. A dinâmica de reconhecimento mútuo é favorecida pela ruptura social da vida monástica, pelas práticas contemplativas e pelo profundo processo de reformulação da identidade- alteridade pela qual passam os monges em sua caminhada para o Absoluto. Atualmente, o reconhecimento da identidade cristã e da alteridade religiosa está sendo considerado por estes monges como central para seu diálogo inter-religioso e está lhes permitindo rever sua relação com a própria identidade, ultrapassando, ao mesmo tempo, as representações históricas negativas sobre as outras religiões e promovendo a abertura para outros seres, culturas e religiões. Estes monges consideram que sua tradição monástica católica está sendo renovada pela esperança espiritual e pela pesquisa de outras tradições e que o diálogo os está ajudando a aprofundar sua própria identidade cristã. A tese descreve suas profundas transformações pessoais e comunitárias, as resistências e avanços, assim como as mudanças nas representações históricas dos monges católicos em relação com a experiência da alteridade e do aprofundamento da identidade cristã, que provocaram uma revisão crítica da postura católica sobre as outras religiões. A análise de todas estas mudanças em relação com o contexto da Babel contemporânea pôs em relevo a contribuição monástica para uma nova perspectiva dialogal sobre a unidade na diversidade de linguagens e seres, permitindo distinguir a visão de pluralidade no reconhecimento da identidadealteridade de outras perspectivas de unidade e pluralidade baseadas apenas na identidade. / [en] The present thesis investigates a new form of dialogue among monks, the dialogue of experience, bringing into focus the psychosocial process of religious identity-alterity. The research is based on documents and testimonies of the Monastic Inter-religious Dialogue (MID), organism attached to the Vatican s Pontifical Council for Inter-religious Dialogue (PCID), that gathers monks from Catholic s monasteries of all the world participating at dialogue s commissions with monks of others religious traditions. Although recent, this type of dialogue indicates a renewable tendency in the occidental and oriental religions relationship; and it is fruit not only of the personal efforts of some pioneers, but also of religious and social transformations, that are accelerating in the actual world-wideness stage. Then, after presenting the monachism s foundations, having presented the differences among their main tendencies and the references to a common base, I situate the dialogue s development in the perspective of Christian monastic history, of the current context of religious pluralism and of Catholic s elaboration about this subject. The importance of this type of dialogue to the religious study s field lies in its experience s emphasis, in its association between dialogue and contemplation (or meditation) and in the sharing of monastic practices by the different religious traditions members. At the same time, as the monk s experience accounts are rooted in their personal and communitarian religious life and are orientated to testimony, they allowed an approach of historical representations that relates these representations to religious practices, to spiritual experiences and to life s histories of monks and monastic communities. The convergence of reflections coming from various fields toward experience has transform this one in a central point of reference around which it was possible to integrate these fields and establish the articulation of experience to testimony, narration and psychosocial process. Based on Ricoeur s hermeneutical phenomenology and on Nabert`s conception of religious consciousness, and having put in evidence the social psychology s contribution to clarify identityalterity s dynamic between the ego and the alter, this thesis analysis the sense, the formation and the consolidation of a new dynamic developed in the inter-monastic dialogue s context, studying it from the point of view of the catholic s monastic community and of their living and historical dialogue and contemplation s experience. This one breaks off with the separated subjectivities vision and with the negation and exclusion s of religious alterity, arriving to a unity in plurality s inter-subjectivity perspective and to a new type of catholic dialogical identity and spirituality. Having verified the central importance of this dynamic and its religious sense to the dialogue s development among contemplatives, the thesis stands out not only this dynamic s psychosocial dimension, but also its rooting in the deepest center of being, underlying relation established by catholic monks between the inter-religious dialogue and their dialogue with God. The Christian conception of God and fellow s alterity has been determinant to the dialogical mutual recognition and to the peace and harmony s monastic experiences among monks from different religions. The study of this conception and of its application on inter-monastic dialogue conducts to the distinction between this dialogical dynamics from the one established in terms of auto- affirmation and other s deny, that is related to the differences negation, to war, and to several kinds of alterity s elimination. The mutual recognition was favored for the monastic social rupture, for the contemplative practices and for the profound process of identityalterity s reformulation the monks go through in their path toward the Absolute. Nowadays, the recognition of Christian identity and religious alterity is being considered by these monks as central to their inter-religious dialogue, and is allowing them to revise their own identity going, at the same time, beyond negative historical representations about other religions and promoting an opening to other beings, cultures and religions. These monks consider that their catholic monastic tradition has been renewed by the spiritual hope and research of other traditions, and that dialogue is helping them to go deeper in their own Christian identity. The thesis describes their profound personal and communitarian transformations, the resistances and progress, as well as the changes in historical representations and spiritual experiences, provoking a great reformulation of catholic posture about others religions. The analyses of all this changes in relation with the contemporary Babel context put in relief the monastic contribution to a new dialogical perspective about unity in diversity of languages and beings, allowing distinguishing the vision of plurality in the recognition of identityalterity from others perspectives of unity and plurality based only on identity.

L’essor du monachisme au courant des IVe et Ve siècles a transformé le paysage religieux dans le bassin méditerranéen. Ce mouvement d’ascètes célibataires et l’impact de son institutionnalisation au sein de la Grande Église ont contribué à la formation d’une nouvelle identité religieuse et à la transformation des systèmes hérités des penseurs classiques. Ce projet, en partant des sources monastiques et classiques, mettra en lumière les relations entre les premiers moines chrétiens et les différentes figures de l’altérité – religieuse, intellectuelle et culturelle – dans la province égyptienne pendant la période byzantine. En se penchant sur différentes entités présentes sur le territoire égyptien, on sera en mesure de mieux comprendre de quelle façon l’identité monastique s’est formée dans sa relation avec l’altérité et comment les auteurs monastiques ont représenté ces groupes identitaires. Ainsi, au terme de cette présentation, le lectorat sera mieux outillé pour saisir les relations qu’entretiennent les premiers moines chrétiens et les divers visages de l’altérité dans le contexte monastique égyptien. / During the 4th and the 5th centuries, the emergence of monasticism transformed the religious landscape around the Mediterranean. This ascetic movement and the impact of its institutionalization within the Great Church contribute to the formation of a new religious identity and to the transformation of systems inherited from classical thinkers. Starting from the monastic sources, this project will shed light on the relations between the first Christian monks and the various figures of otherness – religious, intellectual, and ethnical – in the Egyptian provinces during Late Antiquity. By looking at different entities present in Egyptian territory, we will be able to understand how monastic identity was formed in its relationship with the otherness and how the monastic authors represent these identity groups. Thus, at the end of this presentation, the readers will be better equipped to understand the relationships between the first Christian monks and the various face of otherness in the Egyptian monastic context.

Ce mémoire a pour but de comparer l’état du clergé anglo-saxon de la période de la Regularis Concordia du Xe siècle, avec celui du clergé anglo-normand d’après conquête situé entre 1060 et 1150. La base de cette recherche se fera à partir des sources narratives les plus pertinentes pour cette période. Mais celles-ci ne seront utilisées qu’en support puisque l’essentiel de ce mémoire sera basé sur le dépouillement des listes d’archevêques, d’évêques et d’abbés ayant vécu entre 1060 à 1150. Nous détaillerons leurs origines géographiques, les charges qu’ils ont occupées durant leur vie de même que leurs réseaux sociaux. Nous tenterons de démontrer que contrairement à l’idée reçue, il n’y eut pas de véritable réforme du clergé anglo-normand suite à la conquête, mais davantage une mise à jour de ce dernier, et qu’en fait, le modèle de gouvernance qui fut imposé au clergé anglo-normand au tournant du XIIe siècle fut largement inspiré du fonctionnement de l’Église normande. / This thesis aims at comparing the state of the Anglo-Saxon clergy from the Regularis Concordia period of the 10th century with the state of the Anglo-Norman clergy of the post- conquest era from 1060 to 1150. This research will be based on the most relevant narrative sources available for this period. However, they will be used only as support since the main part of the thesis will be based on various listings of archbishops, bishops and abbots, who have lived between 1060 and 1150. We will study in details their geographic origins, the positions they held as well as their social networks. We will try to demonstrate that contrary to preconceived ideas, a true reform of the Anglo-Norman clergy did not occur following the conquest. The Anglo-Norman clergy was simply updated. Also, the governance model, which was imposed to the Anglo-Norman clergy at the turn of the 12th century, was largely inspired by the functioning of the Norman Church.

Vers la fin du VIIe siècle, dans le monde anglo-saxon, Aldhelm de Malmesbury publia son opus geminatum, la Prosa et le Carmen de uirginitate. Il dédia son oeuvre à des moniales du monastère double de Barking, dont l’abbesse Hildelith. Le De uirginitate est un traité sur la virginité qui comporte une partie théorique, mais aussi des catalogues de figures virginales tirées de la Bible, mais surtout de textes hagiographiques. L’historiographie eut tendance à sous-estimer le rôle de ces catalogues au sein du traité, n’en faisant qu’un simple florilegium assemblé sans logique. Notre travail consistera à répondre à cette idée afin d’affirmer le rôle essentiel de ces figures virginales à titre d’exempla. Ainsi, nous pensons que ces personnages sont des figures exemplaires dont la fonction est de refléter la partie théorique du De uirginitate. Le traité d’Aldhelm nous paraitra dès lors posséder une double fonction, soit celle de défendre les monastères doubles et l’autorité des moniales dans un contexte de plus en plus hostile à ces aspects, mais aussi afin de servir de guide à la renonciation sexuelle. / Near the end of the 7th century, in the anglo-saxon world, Aldhelm of Malmesbury published his opus geminatum, the Prosa and Carmen de uirginitate. He dedicated his work to the nuns of the double monastery of Barking, particularly the abbess Hildelith. The De uirginitate is a treaty on virginity, which includes a theoretical part and catalogs of virginal figures found in hagiographical as well as in Biblical sources. Historiography has tended to underestimate the role of these catalogs within the treaty, portraying them as a mere florilegium without logic. This dissertation will propose that the virginal figures mentioned in the catalogs served as exempla. More specifically, we propose that these characters are exemplary figures whose function is to mirror the theoretical part of the De uirginitate. Ald-helm’s treaty will then appear to possess a double function, which is to defend the double monas-teries and the nuns’ authority in an increasingly hostile environment as well as to serve as a guide to sexual renunciation.

[pt] O monaquismo antigo é um fenômeno de complexidade notável. Os Padres do Deserto foram homens e mulheres que viveram a vocação à perfeição deixada por Jesus de maneira bastante peculiar. O abandono dos centros urbanos para ir ao encontro do deserto marca a passagem de um cristianismo público, próprio dos mártires, ao cristianismo particular, próprio dos monges. No deserto, este espaço de solidão, silêncio e abnegação, homens e mulheres viveram em busca de seu aprimoramento, seja na busca de virtudes, seja no abandono dos vícios. Para os Padres do Deserto, as paixões são campo do combate em busca da perfeição, ideal herdado desde o testemunho dos mártires. A teologia dos Padres do Deserto trata com muita profundidade de temas relativos à vida interior. A recuperação da teologia destes autores é justificada pela relevância de suas análises das paixões humanas, para as quais a ascese e a oração serviram de remédio. / [en] Ancient monasticism is a phenomenon of remarkable complexity. The Desert Fathers were men and women who lived out the call to perfection left by Jesus in a very peculiar way. The abandonment of urban centers to go into the desert marks the transition from a public Christianity, characteristic of martyrs, to a private Christianity, characteristic of monks. In the desert, this space of solitude, silence, and self-denial, men and women lived in pursuit of their own improvement, whether in the pursuit of virtues or the abandonment of vices. For the Desert Fathers, passions are the field of combat in the pursuit of perfection, an ideal inherited from the witness of the martyrs. The theology of the Desert Fathers deals very deeply with themes related to the inner life. The recovery of the theology of these authors is justified by the relevance of their analysis of human passions, for which asceticism and prayer served as a remedy.

Ce travail de recherche est une généalogie de la notion de « désir sexuel » telle qu'elle fut conçue dans le christianisme antique du IIIe au Ve siècle. À partir de la distinction entre deux anthropologies concurrentes, nous cherchons à reconstituer les modalités selon lesquelles ce désir a été pensé comme une pulsion irrésistible. Nous nous inscrivons donc dans la tradition des études de genre puisque nous posons la question de savoir s'il existe, au fondement des catégorisations sociales et des modes de légitimation du pouvoir, une forme de naturalité irréductible. Notre objectif est de mettre en évidence, d'une part, en quoi l'idée de désir naturel est une forme de problématisation contingente du désir sexuel et, d'autre, part, les conséquences de cette façon de penser. Entre le IIIe et le Ve siècle, les auteurs chrétiens s'opposent en ce qui concerne la question des capacités humaines. Pour les « perfectionnistes », l'homme est capable d'accéder par ses propres forces à la perfection. Par conséquent, le « monde » est pensé par eux comme un ensemble de liens qui entravent l'itinéraire spirituel du sujet. La solitude du « désert » apparaît alors dans ce cadre problématique comme un moyen d'accéder à la liberté. Au contraire, pour les « défaillantistes », l'homme est par nature infirme, si bien que la perfection est conçue non plus comme ce à quoi il peut lui-même accéder, mais comme un don de Dieu. En soulignant que l'homme n'est pas le maître dans sa propre maison puisqu'il ne peut maîtriser sa libido, Augustin montre que sa libération n'est envisageable qu'au prix de sa soumission à des institutions coercitives ayant pour fonction de compenser sa faiblesse. Proposant une forme originale de problématisation de la nature humaine en naturalisant la pulsion sexuelle, le défaillantisme chrétien permet donc de justifier la soumission des hommes. En faisant la généalogie du désir sexuel, ce travail s'emploie à montrer que la liberté ne requiert pas seulement une critique de l'idée de répression, mais une remise en cause plus fondamentale du modèle naturaliste de la pulsion. / This thesis is a genealogical study of the notion of “sexual desire” as it appeared in Ancient Christianity from the 3rd to the 5th century. Distinguishing between two competing anthropologies, it seeks to reconstruct the modalities according to which this desire has been understood as a compelling drive. It is in line with gender studies in so far as it asks the question of whether there is, at the basis of social categories and justifications of power, a form of irreducible naturality. The purpose here is, on one hand, to show that the notion of natural desire derives from a contingent problematization of sexual desire and, on the other hand, to highlight the consequences of this reasoning. Between the 3rd and 5th centuries, Christian authors opposed one another on the question of human capabilities. For the “perfectionists,” man was able to achieve perfection on his own. Consequently, they saw the “world” as full of bonds hindering the subject's spiritual progress. In this context, being alone in the “desert” appeared as a means to achieve freedom. On the contrary, the “defaultists” held that man was naturally flawed, so that perfection was not thought to be an achievable goal any more, but a gift from God. Underlining that man was no master in his own house because he could not master his own libido, Augustine showed that his liberation could only depend on his submitting to coercive institutions designed to compensate for his weakness. Offering an original problematization of human nature by naturalizing the sexual drive, Christian defaultism could thus justify the submission of men. By tracing a genealogy of sexual desire, this study seeks to demonstrate that freedom does not only require criticizing the idea of repression, but more radically questionning the naturalist model of the drive.