Soil erosion is a complex geomorphological process with varying influences of different impacts at different spatio-temporal scales. To date, measurement of soil erosion is predominantly realisable at specific scales, thereby detecting separate processes, e.g. interrill erosion contrary to rill erosion. It is difficult to survey soil surface changes at larger areal coverage such as field scale with high spatial resolution. Either net changes at the system outlet or remaining traces after the erosional event are usually measured. Thus, either quasi-point measurements are extrapolated to the corresponding area without knowing the actual sediment source as well as sediment storage behaviour on the plot or erosion rates are estimated disrupting the area of investigation during the data acquisition impeding multi-temporal assessment. Furthermore, established methods of soil erosion detection and quantification are typically only reliable for large event magnitudes, very labour and time intense, or inflexible. To better observe soil erosion processes at field scale and under natural conditions, the development of a method is necessary, which identifies and quantifies sediment sources and sinks at the hillslope with high spatial resolution and captures single precipitation events as well as allows for longer observation periods. Therefore, an approach is introduced, which measures soil surface changes for multi-spatio-temporal scales without disturbing the area of interest. Recent advances regarding techniques to capture high resolution topography (HiRT) data led to several promising tools for soil erosion measurement with corresponding advantages but also disadvantages. The necessity exists to evaluate those methods because they have been rarely utilised in soil surface studies. On the one hand, there is terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), which comprises high error reliability and retrieves 3D information directly. And on the other hand, there is unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology in combination with structure from motion (SfM) algorithms resulting in UAV photogrammetry, which is very flexible in the field and depicts a beneficial perspective. Evaluation of the TLS feasibility reveals that this method implies a systematic error that is distance-related and temporal constant for the investigated device and can be corrected transferring calibration values retrieved from an estimated lookup table. However, TLS still reaches its application limits quickly due to an unfavourable (almost horizontal) scanning view at the soil surface resulting in a fast decrease of point density and increase of noise with increasing distance from the device. UAV photogrammetry allows for a better perspective (birds-eye view) onto the area of interest, but possesses more complex error behaviour, especially in regard to the systematic error of a DEM dome, which depends on the method for 3D reconstruction from 2D images (i.e. options for additional implementation of observations) and on the image network configuration (i.e. parallel-axes and control point configuration). Therefore, a procedure is developed that enables flexible usage of different cameras and software tools without the need of additional information or specific camera orientations and yet avoiding this dome error. Furthermore, the accuracy potential of UAV photogrammetry describing rough soil surfaces is assessed because so far corresponding data is missing. Both HiRT methods are used for multi-temporal measurement of soil erosion processes resulting in surface changes of low magnitudes, i.e. rill and especially interrill erosion. Thus, a reference with high accuracy and stability is a requirement. A local reference system with sub-cm and at its best 1 mm accuracy is setup and confirmed by control surveys. TLS and UAV photogrammetry data registration with these targets ensures that errors due to referencing are of minimal impact. Analysis of the multi-temporal performance of both HiRT methods affirms TLS to be suitable for the detection of erosion forms of larger magnitudes because of a level of detection (LoD) of 1.5 cm. UAV photogrammetry enables the quantification of even lower magnitude changes (LoD of 1 cm) and a reliable observation of the change of surface roughness, which is important for runoff processes, at field plots due to high spatial resolution (1 cm²). Synergetic data fusion as a subsequent post-processing step is necessary to exploit the advantages of both HiRT methods and potentially further increase the LoD. The unprecedented high level of information entails the need for automatic geomorphic feature extraction due to the large amount of novel content. Therefore, a method is developed, which allows for accurate rill extraction and rill parameter calculation with high resolution enabling new perspectives onto rill erosion that has not been possible before due to labour and area access limits. Erosion volume and cross sections are calculated for each rill revealing a dominant rill deepening. Furthermore, rill shifting in dependence of the rill orientation towards the dominant wind direction is revealed. Two field plots are installed at erosion prone positions in the Mediterranean (1,000 m²) and in the European loess belt (600 m²) to ensure the detection of surface changes, permitting the evaluation of the feasibility, potential and limits of TLS and UAV photogrammetry in soil erosion studies. Observations are made regarding sediment connectivity at the hillslope scale. Both HiRT methods enable the identification of local sediment sources and sinks, but still exhibiting some degree of uncertainty due to the comparable high LoD in regard to laminar accumulation and interrill erosion processes. At both field sites wheel tracks and erosion rills increase hydrological and sedimentological connectivity. However, at the Mediterranean field plot especially dis-connectivity is obvious. At the European loess belt case study a triggering event could be captured, which led to high erosion rates due to high soil moisture contents and yet further erosion increase due to rill amplification after rill incision. Estimated soil erosion rates range between 2.6 tha-1 and 121.5 tha-1 for single precipitation events and illustrate a large variability due to very different site specifications, although both case studies are located in fragile landscapes. However, the susceptibility to soil erosion has different primary causes, i.e. torrential precipitation at the Mediterranean site and high soil erodibility at the European loess belt site. The future capability of the HiRT methods is their potential to be applicable at yet larger scales. Hence, investigations of the importance of gullys for sediment connectivity between hillslopes and channels are possible as well as the possible explanation of different erosion rates observed at hillslope and at catchment scales because local sediment sink and sources can be quantified. In addition, HiRT data can be a great tool for calibrating, validating and enhancing soil erosion models due to the unprecedented level of detail and the flexible multi-spatio-temporal application.

Células HEK293T e Huh7 foram adaptadas em meios livres de soro fetal bovino (SFM). Parâmetros metabólicos e de crescimento foram avaliados, além da expressão gênica heteróloga, utilizando um sistema de expressão que produz pseudo-partículas (ppHCV), derivadas do vírus da Leucemia Murina (MLV) e da Hepatite C (HCV). A adaptação foi realizada através de diluição sequencial para SFM. A linhagem HEK293T foi adaptada em dois SFM: Hybridoma-SFM e CHO-S-SFMII, a linhagem Huh7 foi adaptada nos quatro SFM escolhidos. O consumo de substratos para cada linhagem foi diferente entre os SFM, apesar de o crescimento celular ter sido semelhante. Para a análise da expressão gênica, três vetores foram co-transfectados em células HEK293T. Foi observado que para a produção de ppHCV, o tempo de coleta foi de 48 horas. O método de co-transfecção por lipofectamina produziu mais cópias de vírus, sendo que quantificações de 5,30x103 cópias RNA/μL foram encontradas para vírus produzidos em células adaptadas no meio Hybridoma-SFM através de qRT-PCR. Estas ppHCV foram usadas para infectar células Huh7, células infectadas produziram cerca de 10 ng de proteína recombinante/106 células. / HEK 293-T and Huh7 cells were adapted in serum free mediu (SFM). Metabolic and growth parameters were assessed, as well as heterologous gene expression, using an expression system that produces pseudo-particles (ppHCV), derived from the murine leukemia virus (MLV), and Hepatitis C (HCV). The adaptation was performed by sequential dilution in SFM. The HEK- 293T line was adapted in two SFM: Hybridoma-SFM and CHO-S-SFMII, the Huh7 line was adapted in four chosen SFM. The consumption of substrates were different for each line in SFM, while cell growth was similar. For the analysis of gene expression, three vectors were co-transfected into HEK-293T cells. It was observed that for the production of ppHCV, the collection time was 48 hours. The method of co-transfection with lipofectamine produced more copies of the virus into the cells, 5,30 x103 RNA copies/μL were found to virus produced in the cells adapted in Hybridoma- SFM, by qRT-PCR. These ppHCV were used to infect Huh 7, infected cells produced around 10 ng recombinant protein /106 cells.

L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est l'élaboration d'un système de vision binoculaire mettant en oeuvre deux caméras de types différents. Le système étudié est constitué d'une caméra de type omnidirectionnelle associée à une caméra PTZ. Nous appellerons ce couple de caméras un système de vision hybride. L'utilisation de ce type de capteur fournit une vision globale de la scène à l'aide de la caméra omnidirectionnelle tandis que l'usage de la caméra mécanisée permet une fovéation, c'est-à-dire l'acquisition de détails, sur une région d'intérêt détectée depuis l'image panoramique.Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit ont pour objet, à la fois de permettre le suivi d'une cible à l'aide de notre banc de caméras mais également de permettre une reconstruction 3D par stéréoscopie hybride de l'environnement nous permettant d'étudier le déplacement du robot équipé du capteur. / The primary goal of this thesis is to elaborate a binocular vision system using two different types of camera. The system studied here is composed of one omnidirectional camera coupled with a PTZ camera. This heterogeneous association of cameras having different characteristics is called a hybrid stereo-vision system. The couple composed of these two cameras combines the advantages given by both of them, that is to say a large field of view and an accurate vision of a particular Region of interest with an adjustable level of details using the zoom. In this thesis, we are presenting multiple contributions in visual tracking using omnidirectional sensors, PTZ camera self calibration, hybrid vision system calibration and structure from motion using a hybrid stereo-vision system.

Células HEK293T e Huh7 foram adaptadas em meios livres de soro fetal bovino (SFM). Parâmetros metabólicos e de crescimento foram avaliados, além da expressão gênica heteróloga, utilizando um sistema de expressão que produz pseudo-partículas (ppHCV), derivadas do vírus da Leucemia Murina (MLV) e da Hepatite C (HCV). A adaptação foi realizada através de diluição sequencial para SFM. A linhagem HEK293T foi adaptada em dois SFM: Hybridoma-SFM e CHO-S-SFMII, a linhagem Huh7 foi adaptada nos quatro SFM escolhidos. O consumo de substratos para cada linhagem foi diferente entre os SFM, apesar de o crescimento celular ter sido semelhante. Para a análise da expressão gênica, três vetores foram co-transfectados em células HEK293T. Foi observado que para a produção de ppHCV, o tempo de coleta foi de 48 horas. O método de co-transfecção por lipofectamina produziu mais cópias de vírus, sendo que quantificações de 5,30x103 cópias RNA/μL foram encontradas para vírus produzidos em células adaptadas no meio Hybridoma-SFM através de qRT-PCR. Estas ppHCV foram usadas para infectar células Huh7, células infectadas produziram cerca de 10 ng de proteína recombinante/106 células. / HEK 293-T and Huh7 cells were adapted in serum free mediu (SFM). Metabolic and growth parameters were assessed, as well as heterologous gene expression, using an expression system that produces pseudo-particles (ppHCV), derived from the murine leukemia virus (MLV), and Hepatitis C (HCV). The adaptation was performed by sequential dilution in SFM. The HEK- 293T line was adapted in two SFM: Hybridoma-SFM and CHO-S-SFMII, the Huh7 line was adapted in four chosen SFM. The consumption of substrates were different for each line in SFM, while cell growth was similar. For the analysis of gene expression, three vectors were co-transfected into HEK-293T cells. It was observed that for the production of ppHCV, the collection time was 48 hours. The method of co-transfection with lipofectamine produced more copies of the virus into the cells, 5,30 x103 RNA copies/μL were found to virus produced in the cells adapted in Hybridoma- SFM, by qRT-PCR. These ppHCV were used to infect Huh 7, infected cells produced around 10 ng recombinant protein /106 cells.

[ES] La Fotogrametría es una ciencia y tecnología que tiene utilidad médica creciente. Una aplicación médica destacable de la Fotogrametría es la medición de las úlceras de la piel. Las úlceras de la piel constituyen un problema médico y social importante: por su elevado coste económico, afectación de la salud y calidad de vida, frecuente cronicidad y complicaciones. La medición de la úlcera es necesaria y útil para el seguimiento clínico. La disminución de variables de tamaño de la úlcera indica su progresión hacia la cicatrización. Los procedimientos tradicionales de medición unidimensional y bidimensional, como la regla graduada y la planimetría con acetato, se siguen utilizando por su sencillez y comodidad de uso. Sin embargo, son invasivos y tienen inconvenientes técnicos, como inexactitud e imprecisión. Otros procedimientos de medición tridimensional (3D), como la inyección de líquido y los moldes de pasta, pueden tener, además, efectos adversos, como dolor, irritación o reacción alérgica. Algunos procedimientos sin contacto que utilizan técnicas de escaneo con luz estructurada o láser: 1/ necesitan dispositivos de escaneo específicos; 2/ no se ha demostrado su utilidad en la práctica clínica; 3/ tienen un coste elevado. Por otra parte, no hay un procedimiento de referencia (patrón oro) para la medición del volumen de las úlceras cutáneas. Una optimización de las técnicas utilizadas para la valoración objetiva de la evolución de las úlceras de la piel ayudaría a comparar la eficacia de los distintos tratamientos y seleccionar los más adecuados, así como predecir el tiempo de curación. Por todo lo anterior, se justifica el desarrollo de un procedimiento de medición de úlceras basado en una técnica fotogramétrica sin contacto, como la estereofotogrametría. El objetivo general de esta tesis es desarrollar un procedimiento fotogramétrico para el escaneo, medición, clasificación tisular y seguimiento clínico de úlceras cutáneas; y validar dicho procedimiento en un estudio clínico con pacientes, evaluando su fiabilidad y exactitud. El procedimiento SfM-3DULC está basado en las técnicas estereofotogramétricas SfM (Structure from Motion) y MVS (Multi View Stereo) y utiliza como software de escaneo Agisoft PhotoScan y como software de medición del modelo 3D el programa 3DULC, creado por los autores. Este procedimiento escanea y reconstruye un modelo digital 3D de la úlcera utilizando una cámara digital, con la que se adquieren una serie de fotografías desde varias localizaciones y orientaciones. Para la validación del procedimiento SfM-3DULC, se realizó un estudio piloto en el que se evaluó su fiabilidad y exactitud. También se propuso una nueva variante del procedimiento ImageJ, en la que se utiliza una ortofotografía (Ortho-ImageJ), para medir el área proyectada. Por último, se compararon las mediciones realizadas por un grupo de dermatólogos y otro grupo de no expertos. Todas las variables medidas por dermatólogos usando SfM-3DULC mostraron excelentes puntuaciones de fiabilidad intra-evaluador (ICC > 0.99) e inter-evaluador (ICC > 0.98). En conclusión, el software 3DULC desarrollado, en su versión 1.0: 1/ Interviene en la fase de medición de la úlcera cutánea, tras su escaneo. 2/ Es autónomo respecto al procedimiento de escaneo, y podría utilizarse junto a cualquier otra técnica que obtenga una nube de puntos de la úlcera cutánea. 3/ Detecta el contorno de la úlcera de forma asistida basándose en su respuesta espectral. 4/ Clasifica las zonas de la úlcera cutánea según su tipo de tejido utilizando un árbol de decisión. 5/ Mide las siguientes variables morfométricas de la úlcera cutánea: coeficiente de circularidad, coeficiente de lisura, longitud máxima, perímetro, profundidad máxima, área proyectada, área de la superficie excavada, área de la superficie de referencia y volumen. 6/ Presenta los resultados con un informe HTML que facilita la interpretación por personal sanitario. / [CA] La Fotogrametria és una ciència i tecnologia que té utilitat mèdica creixent. Una aplicació mèdica destacable de la Fotogrametria és el mesurament de les úlceres de la pell. Les úlceres de la pell constitueixen un problema mèdic i social important: pel seu elevat cost econòmic, afectació de la salut i qualitat de vida, freqüent cronicitat i complicacions. El mesurament de l'úlcera és necessària i útil per al seguiment clínic. La disminució de variables de mida de l'úlcera indica la seva progressió cap a la cicatrització. Els procediments tradicionals de mesurament unidimensional i bidimensional, com el regle graduat i la planimetria amb acetat, es continuen utilitzant per la seva senzillesa i comoditat d'ús. No obstant això, són invasius i tenen inconvenients tècnics, com inexactitud i imprecisió. Altres procediments de mesurament tridimensional (3D), com la injecció de líquid i els motles de pasta, poden tenir, a més, efectes adversos, com dolor, irritació o reaccions al·lèrgiques. Alguns procediments sense contacte que utilitzen tècniques d'escaneig amb llum estructurada o làser: 1 / necessiten dispositius d'escaneig específics; 2 / no s'ha demostrat la seva utilitat en la pràctica clínica; 3 / tenen un cost elevat. D'altra banda, no hi ha un procediment de referència (patró or) per al mesurament del volum de les úlceres cutànies. Una optimització de les tècniques utilitzades per a la valoració objectiva de l'evolució de les úlceres de la pell ajudaria a comparar l'eficàcia dels diferents tractaments i seleccionar els més adequats, així com predir el temps de curació. Per tot l'anterior, es justifica el desenvolupament d'un procediment de mesurament de úlceres basat en una tècnica fotogramètrica sense contacte, com la estereofotogrametría. L'objectiu general d'aquesta tesi és desenvolupar un procediment fotogramètric per a l'escaneig, mesurament, classificació tissular i seguiment clínic d'úlceres cutànies; i validar aquest procediment en un estudi clínic amb pacients, avaluant la seva fiabilitat i exactitud. El procediment SFM-3DULC està basat en les tècniques estereofotogramétricas SFM (Structure from Motion) i MVS (Multi View Stereo) i utilitza com a programari d'escaneig Agisoft PhotoScan i com a programari de mesurament de el model 3D el programa 3DULC, creat pels autors. Aquest procediment escaneja i reconstrueix un model digital 3D de l'úlcera utilitzant una càmera digital, amb la qual s'adquireixen una sèrie de fotografies des de diverses localitzacions i orientacions. Per a la validació de l'procediment SFM-3DULC, es va realitzar un estudi pilot en el qual es va avaluar la seva fiabilitat i exactitud. També es va proposar una nova variant del procediment ImageJ, en què s'utilitza una ortofotografia (Ortho-ImageJ), per mesurar l'àrea projectada. Finalment, es van comparar les mesures realitzades per un grup de dermatòlegs i un altre grup de no experts. Totes les variables mesures per dermatòlegs usant SFM-3DULC van mostrar excel·lents puntuacions de fiabilitat intra-avaluador (ICC> 0.99) i inter-avaluador (ICC> 0.98). En conclusió, el programari 3DULC desenvolupat, en la seva versió 1.0: 1 / Intervé en la fase de mesurament de l'úlcera cutània, després de la seva exploració. 2 / És autònom respecte a l'procediment d'escaneig, i podria utilitzar-costat de qualsevol altra tècnica que obtingui un núvol de punts de l'úlcera cutània. 3 / Detecta el contorn de l'úlcera de forma assistida basant-se en la seva resposta espectral. 4 / Classifica les zones de l'úlcera cutània segons el seu tipus de teixit utilitzant un arbre de decisió. 5 / Mesura les variables morfomètriques de l'úlcera cutània: coeficient de circularitat, coeficient de llisor, longitud màxima, perímetre, profunditat màxima, àrea projectada, àrea de la superfície excavada, àrea de la superfície de referència i volum. 6 / Presenta els resultats amb un informe HTML que facilita la interpretació per personal sanitari. / [EN] Photogrammetry is a science and technology of increasing medical utility. A notable medical application of photogrammetry is the measurement of skin ulcers. Skin ulcers are a major medical and social problem: due to their high economic cost, impact on health and quality of life, frequent chronicity and complications. Ulcer measurement is necessary and useful for the clinical follow-up. Decreasing ulcer size variables indicate progression towards healing. Traditional one- and two-dimensional measurement procedures, such as the graduated ruler and acetate planimetry, are still used because of their simplicity and ease of use. However, they are invasive and have technical drawbacks, such as inaccuracy and imprecision. Other three-dimensional (3D) measurement procedures, such as liquid injection and paste moulds, may also have adverse effects, such as pain, irritation or allergic reaction. Some non-contact procedures that use structured light or laser scanning techniques: 1/ require specific scanning devices; 2/ have not been demonstrated to be useful in clinical practice; 3/ are expensive. Moreover, there is no reference procedure (gold standard) for the measurement of skin ulcer volume. Optimisation of the techniques used for the objective assessment of the evolution of skin ulcers would help to compare the efficacy of different treatments and to select the most appropriate ones, as well as to predict healing time. Therefore, the development of an ulcer measurement procedure based on a non-contact photogrammetric technique, such as stereophotogrammetry, is justified. The main objective of this thesis is to develop a photogrammetric procedure for the scanning, measurement, tissue classification and clinical follow-up of skin ulcers; and to validate this procedure in a clinical study with patients, evaluating its reliability and accuracy. The SfM-3DULC procedure is based on the stereophotogrammetric techniques SfM (Structure from Motion) and MVS (Multi View Stereo) and uses Agisoft PhotoScan as scanning software and 3DULC as 3D model measurement software. This procedure scans and reconstructs a 3D digital model of the ulcer using a digital camera, which acquires photographs from various locations and orientations. In order to validate the SfM-3DULC procedure, a pilot study was conducted to assess its reliability and accuracy. A new variant of the ImageJ procedure was also proposed, in which an orthophotography (Ortho-ImageJ) is used to measure the projected area. Finally, measurements made by a group of dermatologists and a group of non-experts were compared. All the variables measured by dermatologists using SfM-3DULC showed excellent scores of intra-rater reliability (ICC > 0.99) and inter-rater reliability (ICC > 0.98). In conclusion, the 3DULC software developed, in its version 1.0: 1/ Is used to measure the skin ulcer, after its scan. 2/ Is autonomous with respect to the scanning procedure, and could be used with any other technique that obtains a point cloud of the skin ulcer. 3/ Outlines the edge of the ulcer semi-automatically, based on its spectral response. 4/ Classifies skin ulcer areas according to their tissue type, using a decision tree. 5/ Measures the following morphometric variables of the skin ulcer: circularity coefficient, evenness coefficient, maximum length, perimeter, maximum depth, projected area, surface area, reference surface area and volume. 6/ Presents the results with an HTML report that facilitates its interpretation by healthcare personnel. / Esta tesis doctoral fue financiada con una beca predoctoral de la Generalitat Valenciana – Consellería de Educación, Investigación, Cultura y Deporte, y el Fondo Social Europeo (ACIF/2018/160). / Sánchez Jiménez, D. (2022). SfM-3DULC: Desarrollo y validación de un procedimiento fotogramétrico para el escaneo, medición, clasificación tisular y seguimiento clínico de úlceras cutáneas [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181691 / TESIS

In this thesis project, the main objective is to compare and evaluate different surveying methodsfor volume determination; Photogrammetry, Terrestrial Laser Scanning(TLS) and Aerial LaserScanning (ALS) based on time consumption, efficiency and safety in the mining industry. In addition,a volumetric computational method based on coordinates would be formulated to estimatethe volume of stockpiles using lidar data captured with a laser scanner. The use of GNSS receiver, UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) equipped with a LiDAR sensor as wellas a camera, and terrestrial laser scanner were adopted for making measurements on stockpiles. Trimble Business Center and Trimble RealWorks were used in processing LiDAR data from TLSand ALS. Two volume computational approaches were also explored using both TLS and ALSLiDAR data. Agisoft Photoscan was used in processing the images captured adopting the structurefrom motion principle. These softwares were used to estimate the volume of the stockpile. Matlabwas used to estimate the volume of stockpile using LiDAR data. A volume computational methodbased on coordinates of point cloud was implemented. Analysis based on time taken to captureand process all data types till the fi nal product was done. The results obtained from each datacapturing methods were evaluated. Simulated data technology is also adopted in this project asit can be modeled in different ways to study the effect of surface roughness (point density) onvolume estimated. A part of this project explores the use of MATLAB to  filter out unwantedpoint clouds coming from the weeds that grow on the surface of an abandoned stockpile and alsosurface areas that were to be excluded from the volume computation, as in this case. From the results obtained, TLS and ALS do not differ much in the  final volume estimated. Photogrammetry on the other-hand estimated a higher volume as compared to the other surveymethods. MATLAB in estimating the volume of stockpile achieves approximately an equal estimate as that of the TLS and ALS within a short period of time. The point density and fi ltering algorithm playsa critical role in volume computation which helps in providing a good estimate of the stockpile. Findings from this project show that is it time consuming to estimate the volume of stockpileusing TLS and Photogrammetric approach. In terms of safety on an active mining site, these twosurvey method have high risk probability as compared to the ALS approach. The accuracy forthe data captured and processed can be said to be satisfactory for each survey method. / I detta avhandlingsprojekt var huvudmålet att jämföra och utvärdera tre kartläggningsmetoder för volymbestämning: Fotogrammetri, Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) och Aerial Laser Scan-ning (ALS) baserat på tidsförbrukning, effektivitet och säkerhet i gruvindustrin. Dessutom formulerades en volymetrisk beräkningsmetod baserad på koordinater för att uppskatta volymen av lager med hjälp av lidardata som fångats med en laserskanner. Användningen av GNSS-mottagare, UAV (obemannad flygbil) utrustad med en LiDAR-sensor samt en kamera och markbunden laserscanner antogs för att göra mätningar på lager. Trimble Business Center och Trimble RealWorks användes vid bearbetning av LiDAR-data från TLS och ALS. Två volymberäkningsmetoder undersöktes också med både TLS- och ALS LiDAR-data. Agisoft Photoscan användes vid bearbetning av de bilder som tagits och antagit strukturen från rörelseprincipen. Denna programvara användes för att uppskatta volymen på lagret. Matlab användes för att uppskatta volymen av lager med LiDAR-data. En volymberäkningsmetod baserad på koordinater för punktmoln implementerades i Matlab. Analys baserad på den tid det tar att fånga och bearbeta alla datatyper tills den slutliga produkten var klar. Resultaten från varje datafångstmetod utvärderades. Simulerad datateknik antas också i detta projekt eftersom den kan modelleras på olika sätt för att studera effekten av ytjämnhet (punkttäthet) på den uppskattade volymen. En del av detta projekt utforskar användningen av MATLAB för att filtrera bort oönskade punktmoln som kommer från ogräset som växer på ytan av ett övergivet lager och även ytarealer som skulle uteslutas från volymberäkningen, som i detta fall. Från de erhållna resultaten skiljer sig TLS och ALS inte mycket i de slutliga volymuppskattningarna. Fotogrammetri å andra sidan uppskattade en högre volym jämfört med de andra undersöknings-metoderna. MATLAB vid uppskattning av lagervolymen uppnår ungefär lika stor uppskattning som TLS och ALS inom en kort tidsperiod. Punkttätheten och filtreringsalgoritmen spelar en viktig roll i volymberäkning som hjälper till att ge en bra uppskattning av lagret. Resultat från detta projekt visar att det är tidskrävande att uppskatta lagervolymen med TLS och fotogram-metrisk metod. När det gäller säkerhet på en aktiv gruvplats har dessa två undersökningsmetoder hög risk sannolikhet jämfört med ALS-metoden. Noggrannheten för de insamlade och bearbetade uppgifterna kan sägas vara tillfredsställande för varje undersökningsmetod.

Potholes are caused by erosion and as such always emerging on our roadnetwork. Potholes may not only cause great damages to vehicles, but can alsocause road accidents, which in the worst case are fatal. Today, the detection ofpotholes is usually based on citizen reports or ocular inspection by vehicle,where a loose description of the potholes properties and location can be given.Recent research has explored the possibility of aerial inspection of paved roadswith the new, cost effective, Structure-from-Motion (SfM) technique, whichcan produce 3D point clouds from photogrammetric data. SfM point cloudshave then been used in conjunction with processing algorithms toautomatically detect and extract potholes from paved surfaces. However, theresults have not been optimal for practical use. The purpose of this study is,therefore, to explore the possibility of using UAV LiDAR for potholedetection in paved roads as a better alternative to the currently popularStructure-from-Motion (SfM) technique. A LiDAR point cloud is derived by alaser scanner and may have several advantages over SfM, for instance, theinsensitivity to poor light conditions and modelling errors. This study is setout to answer how point clouds derived from UAV SfM and UAV LiDARcompare to each other regarding detecting potholes of different sizes, wheredetected potholes will be compared to ground truth data. An elevation check,consisting of 126 height control points along the paved road, will also be usedto evaluate the height accuracy in the clouds. Data collection is done with theUAV system mdLiDAR3000DL aaS containing a RIEGL miniVUX-1DLlaser scanner for LiDAR data and Sony RX1R II 42.4 megapixel camera forSfM data. The data for both methods are collected during the same flight. Theproposed method automatically detects and extracts potholes from a pavedsurface based on the vertical distance to local reference planes which representthe undamaged road surface. The point clouds are filtered in CloudComparebefore imported to TerraScan for detection and extraction of potholes. Theextraction results are then controlled by a set of terrestrial measurements bytotal station. The results show that potholes with a smaller width of at least16.5 cm and a depth of at least 2.7 cm can be detected and extracted frompoint clouds derived by UAV LiDAR at a flight altitude of 30 m. Theextracted potholes had a standard deviation of 1.40 cm in width and 6.7 mmin depth. Shadows on the road caused height anomalies in the point cloudproduced by Structure-from-Motion (SfM), which made pothole detectionimpossible with the proposed methodology. / Potthål skapas genom erosion i vägar och uppstår varje år i vägnätet. Skadornapåverkar inte bara fordonens skick, utan kan även vara orsaken till olyckorsom i vissa fall är dödliga. I dagsläget detekteras potthål genom ockulärt frånfordon av kommunala arbetare eller så rapporteras de in av medborgare via etjänst där en lös beskrivning kan ges angående potthålens egenskaper ochposition.På senare tid har studier utforskat möjligheterna för flygburen inspektion avasfalterade vägar med den nya, kostnadseffektiva, Structure-from-Motion(SfM) tekniken som kan producera 3D-punktmoln från fotogrammetrisk data.Punktmolnen som är framtagna genom denna metod har vidare använtstillsammans med bearbetningsalgoritmer för att detektion och extraktion avpotthål i asfalterade vägar. Dock har resultaten inte varit optimala för attmetoden ska fungera i praktiken. Syftet med den här studien är därför attutforska möjligheten för att använda UAV LiDAR som en bättre metod fördenna process. Punktmoln framtagna genom LiDAR-teknik, mer känt somlaserskanning, kan ha ett flertal potentiella fördelar över SfM som okänslighetmot modelleringsfel och dåliga ljusförhållanden.Denna studie ger svar på hur punktmoln framtagna genom UAV LiDAR ochUAV SfM förhåller sig till varandra när det gäller detektion av potthål i olikastorlekar från asfalterade vägar, där potthålens dimensioner kommer attjämföras mot markbundna kontrollmätningar. Vidare görs en höjdkontrollmot 126 höjdstöd i båda punktmolnen för att jämföra kvaliteten förhöjdmätningar på den asfalterade vägen genom respektive metod.Insamlingen av data gjordes samtidigt under samma flygning för bådametoderna. Drönaren som användes var Microdrones mdLiDAR3000DL aaSmed en RIEGL miniVUX-1DL laserskanner och en Sony RX1R II 42,4megapixelkamera monterad. Mjukvarorna som har använts för bearbetning ärCloudCompare för filtrering av brus med mera och TerraScan för självadetektions -och extraktionsprocessen.Resultatet visar att det är möjligt att extrahera potthål från LiDAR-baseradepunktmoln med en mindre bredd på minst 16,5 cm och ett djup på 2,7 cm.Standardavvikelsen för potthålens bredd är 1,4 cm och 6,7 mm i djup.Grupper av avvikande punkter skapades på vägen i det SfM-baseradepunktmolnen som en följd av ett modelleringsfel i skuggområden på vägen,vilket vidare gjorde detektion -och extraktionsprocessen omöjlig med denframtagna metoden.

Wild leek (Allium tricoccum) is a spring ephemeral of northeastern North America. In the Canadian province of Quebec, it is listed as threatened due to human harvesting, and in Gatineau Park its presence is used as an indicator of human impact. Wild leek grows in patches on the forest floor, and before the tree canopy develops its green leaves are clearly visible through the bare branches of deciduous forests, allowing it to be observed with optical remote sensing. This study developed and tested a new method for monitoring wild leek across large geographic areas by integrating field observations, UAV video, and satellite imagery. Three-cm resolution orthomosaics were generated for five <0.1 km2 sites from the UAV video using Structure-from-Motion, segmented, and classified into wild leek (WL) or other (OT) surface types using a simple greenness threshold. The resulting maps, validated using the field observations, had a high overall accuracy (F1-scores between 0.64 to 0.94). These maps were then used to calibrate a linear model predicting the per-pixel percentage cover of wild leek (%WL) from NDVI in the satellite imagery. The linear model calibrated for a Sentinel-2 image from 2018, covering all of Gatineau Park (~361 km2), allowed %WL to be predicted with an RMSE of 10.32. A similar model calibrated for a WorldView-2 image from 2018 was noisy (RMSE = 37.64), though much improved by resampling this image to match the spatial resolution of Sentinel-2, due to MAUP scale effect (RMSE = 13.06). Testing the potential for satellite-based monitoring of wild leek, the %WL prediction errors were similar when a new linear model was developed using the Sentinel-2 image from 2017 (RMSE = 12.84) and when the model calibrated with the 2018 Sentinel-2 image was applied to the 2017 satellite data (RMSE = 16.97). The linear models developed for the Sentinel-2 and WorldView-2 images from 2018 were used to map wild leek cover for Gatineau Park. Both images allowed production of similar wild leek maps that, based on field experience and visual inspection of the imagery, provide good descriptions of the actual distribution of wild leek at Gatineau Park.

Efficient and effective vision systems are proposed in this work for object detection for ground&aerial robots venturing into unknown environments with minimum vision aids, i.e. a single camera. The first problem attempted is that of object search and identification in a situation similar to a disaster site. Based on image analysis, typical pixel-based characteristics of a visual marker have been established to search for, using a block based search algorithm, along with a noise and interference filter. The proposed algorithm has been successfully utilized for the International Aerial Robotics competition 2009. The second problem deals with object detection for collision avoidance in 3D environments. It has been shown that a 3D model of the scene can be generated from 2D image information from a single camera flying through a very small arc of lateral flight around the object, without the need of capturing images from all sides. The forward flight simulations show that the depth extracted from forward motion is usable for large part of the image. After analyzing various constraints associated with this and other existing approaches, Motion Estimation has been proposed. Implementation of motion estimation on videos from onboard cameras resulted in various undesirable and noisy vectors. An in depth analysis of such vectors is presented and solutions are proposed and implemented, demonstrating desirable motion estimation for collision avoidance task.

This thesis deals with algorithms of visual odometry and its application on the experimental vehicle Car4. The first part contains different researches in this area on which the solution process is based. Next chapters introduce theoretical design and ideas of monocular and stereo visual odometry algorithms. The third part deals with the implementation in the software MATLAB with the use of Image processing toolbox. After tests done and based on real data, the chosen algorithm is applied to the vehicle Car4 used in practical conditions of interior and exterior. The last part summarizes the results of the work and address the problems which are asociated with the application of visual obmetry algorithms.