Les agents anti-infectieux sont utilisés pour traiter ou prévenir les infections chez les humains, les animaux, les insectes et les plantes. L’apparition de traces de ces substances dans les eaux usées, les eaux naturelles et même l’eau potable dans plusieurs pays du monde soulève l’inquiétude de la communauté scientifique surtout à cause de leur activité biologique. Le but de ces travaux de recherche a été d’étudier la présence d’anti-infectieux dans les eaux environnementales contaminées (c.-à-d. eaux usées, eaux naturelles et eau potable) ainsi que de développer de nouvelles méthodes analytiques capables de quantifier et confirmer leur présence dans ces matrices. Une méta-analyse sur l’occurrence des anti-infectieux dans les eaux environnementales contaminées a démontré qu’au moins 68 composés et 10 de leurs produits de transformation ont été quantifiés à ce jour. Les concentrations environnementales varient entre 0.1 ng/L et 1 mg/L, selon le composé, la matrice et la source de contamination. D’après cette étude, les effets nuisibles des anti-infectieux sur le biote aquatique sont possibles et ces substances peuvent aussi avoir un effet indirect sur la santé humaine à cause de sa possible contribution à la dissémination de la résistance aux anti-infecteiux chez les bactéries. Les premiers tests préliminaires de développement d’une méthode de détermination des anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées ont montré les difficultés à surmonter lors de l’extraction sur phase solide (SPE) ainsi que l’importance de la sélectivité du détecteur. On a décrit une nouvelle méthode de quantification des anti-infectieux utilisant la SPE en tandem dans le mode manuel et la chromatographie liquide couplée à la spectrométrie de masse en tandem (LC-MS/MS). Les six anti-infectieux ciblés (sulfaméthoxazole, triméthoprime, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, clarithromycin et azithromycin) ont été quantifiés à des concentrations entre 39 et 276 ng/L dans les échantillons d’affluent et d’effluent provenant d’une station d’épuration appliquant un traitement primaire et physico- chimique. Les concentrations retrouvées dans les effluents indiquent que la masse moyenne totale de ces substances, déversées hebdomadairement dans le fleuve St. Laurent, était de ~ 2 kg. En vue de réduire le temps total d’analyse et simplifier les manipulations, on a travaillé sur une nouvelle méthode de SPE couplée-LC-MS/MS. Cette méthode a utilisé une technique de permutation de colonnes pour préconcentrer 1.00 mL d’échantillon dans une colonne de SPE couplée. La performance analytique de la méthode a permis la quantification des six anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées municipales et les limites de détection étaient du même ordre de grandeur (13-60 ng/L) que les méthodes basées sur la SPE manuelle. Ensuite, l’application des colonnes de SPE couplée de chromatographie à débit turbulent pour la préconcentration de six anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées a été explorée pour diminuer les effets de matrice. Les résultats obtenus ont indiqué que ces colonnes sont une solution de réchange intéressante aux colonnes de SPE couplée traditionnelles. Finalement, en vue de permettre l’analyse des anti-infectieux dans les eaux de surface et l’eau potable, une méthode SPE couplée-LC-MS/MS utilisant des injections de grand volume (10 mL) a été développée. Le volume de fuite de plusieurs colonnes de SPE couplée a été estimé et la colonne ayant la meilleure rétention a été choisie. Les limites de détection et de confirmation de la méthode ont été entre 1 à 6 ng/L. L’analyse des échantillons réels a démontré que la concentration des trois anti-infectieux ciblés (sulfaméthoxazole, triméthoprime et clarithromycine) était au dessous de la limite de détection de la méthode. La mesure des masses exactes par spectrométrie de masse à temps d’envol et les spectres des ions produits utilisant une pente d’énergie de collision inverse dans un spectromètre de masse à triple quadripôle ont été explorés comme des méthodes de confirmation possibles. / Anti-infectives are used to treat or prevent infections in humans, animals, insects and plants. The occurrence of traces of these substances in wastewaters, natural waters and even drinking water has caused concern among the scientific community especially because of their biological activiy. The goal of this research was to study the occurrence of anti-infectives in contaminated environmental waters (wastewaters, natural waters, and drinking water) and to develop new analytical methods able to quantitate and confirm their presence in these matrices. A meta-analysis on the occurrence of anti-infectives in contaminated environmental waters demonstrated that at least 68 parent compounds and 10 transformation products have been quantified to date. Environmental concentrations vary between 0.1 ng/L and 1 mg/L depending on the compound, the matrix and the source of contamination. According to this study, detrimental effects of anti-infectives on aquatic biota are possible and these substances could also affect indirectly human health because of their possible contribution to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Preliminary tests on the development of a method of determination of anti-infectives in wastewaters showed the main difficulties to overcome during solid-phase extraction (SPE) as well as the importance of the detector selectivity. A novel method of determination of anti-infectives was described using off-line tandem SPE and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Six target anti-infectives (sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, clarithromycin and azithromycine) were quantitated at concentrations between 39 and 276 ng/L in samples of influent and effluent collected from a primary and physico-chemical wastewater treatement plant. Reported effluent concentrations indicate that the mean mass of these substances discharged daily in the St. Lawrence River was ~ 2 kg. In order to reduce total analysis time and simplify sample preparation, a new on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS was presented. This method used a column-switching technique to preconcentrate 1.00 mL of sample in an on-line SPE column. Method analytical performance allowed the quantitation of six anti-infectives in municipal wastewaters and limits of detection were of the same magnitude (13-60 ng/L) than methods based in offline SPE. Next, the application of turbulent flow chromatography on-line SPE columns for the preconcentration of six anti-infectives in wastewaters was explored. Results showed that these columns are an interesting alternative to traditional on-line SPE columns. Finally, in order to allow analysis of anti-infectives in surface and drinking water, we developed an on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS method using large-volume injections (10 mL). Breakthrough volumes of several on-line SPE columns were estimated and the column having the best retention, Strata-X, was chosen. Method detection and confirmation limits were between 1 and 6 ng/L. Analysis of real samples indicated that the concentration of the three target anti-infectives (sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim and clarithromycin) was lower that the method detection limits. Accurate mass measurement by time-of-flight mass spectrometry and product ion spectra obtained by a reversed-energy ramp in a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer were explored as alternative confirmation methods.

M. Tech. (Biotechnology) Vaal University of Technology / One of the major problems encountered in qualitative and quantitative determination of residual pesticides by gas chromatography is the matrix effects. Matrix components have a considerable effect on the way analysis is conducted and the quality of results obtained, introducing problems such as inaccurate quantification, low analyte delectability and reporting of false positive or even false negative results. It was aimed to develop and validate a suitable method for counteracting the matrix effects so as to improve the detection and quantification of selected organochlorine pesticide residues from real water samples. The real water samples used were sampled from three points along the Jukskei River catchment area in Gauteng, South Africa for a period of 7 months from January to July 201 0 so as to create a representative sample. An automated solid phase extraction (SPE) method coupled to Gas ChromatographyMass Spectrometry (GC-MS) method for the analysis of 20 selected organochlorine pesticides was developed and validated for the purposes of studying the matrix effects. The analytical method showed a significant degree of validity when tested against parameters such as linearity, repeatability and sensitivity. Endosulphan beta, 4,4' Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane, and Heptachlor-epoxide had the broadest linear calibration ranges of 1 ppm- 0.0156 ppm. Benzene hexachloride (BHC) delta and Lindane had the lowest statistical limits of detection of 0.018 ppm. Statistical hypothesis testing indicated that there was significant linearity in all selected organochlorine calibration curves. Four different reversed sorbent phases, including LC18, SC18- E and Strata-X (styrene divinyl benzene) were tested for organochlorine retention efficiency. The LC-18 200 mg cartridge proved to be the most robust and effective sorbent phase as it produced better recoveries varying from 90-130% for most analytes. A breakthrough volume of 100 ml for the LC-18 200 mg cartridge was determined using an optimum matrix load curve. It was then concluded that the method developed was suitable for further research towards the influence of the matrix on selective determination of the selected organochlorine pesticides. Four different calibration methods, namely matrix-free external standard, matrixmatched external standard, matrix-free internal standard and matrix-matched internal standard were applied to test the efficiency of computing recoveries. All calibration curves for the 20 organochlorine pesticides showed significant linearity > 0.99 when plotted on both Chemstation and Excel. The calibration methods were tested on three different matrices composed of a high sample matrix (synthetic matrix), a low sample matrix (real sample matrix) and a no sample matrix (ultrapure water). Statistical hypothesis testing led to the decision that there are significant differences between the mean recoveries of the three water sample matrices and also that the differences in the mean recoveries of the three sample matrices are independent of the both the two calibration techniques (internal standard and external standard) and calibration types (matrix-matched and matrix-free) applied. This led to the overall conclusion that the matrix effects have an overwhelming influence on the selective determination of the selected organochlorine pesticides.

Kokzidiostatika werden in der Kleintiermast als Futtermittelzusatzstoffe zur Vorbeugung der Kokzidiose eingesetzt. Die Verwendung der Wirkstoffe ist in der Europäischen Union gesetzlich geregelt und unterliegt der amtlichen Lebens- und Futtermittelkontrolle. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Methoden zur flüssigchromatographisch tandem-massen¬spektro¬metrischen (LC-MS/MS-) Bestimmung von Kokzidiostatika in Futtermitteln und in Ei entwickelt. Durch Bestandteile des Probenmaterials traten Störungen des Analytsignals auf. Die Untersuchung solcher Matrixeffekte ist in der pharmazeutischen und der Pestizidanalytik üblich. Zu Matrixeffekten bei der LC-MS/MS-Analytik in Futtermitteln gibt es kaum Daten. Ein Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war daher die Untersuchung der Einflussfaktoren auf Matrixeffekte bei der Analyse von Kokzidiostatika. Aufgrund der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse wurde eine Methode zur Bestimmung von Verschleppungen von Kokzidiostatika in Futtermittel für Nichtzieltierarten entwickelt und validiert. Weitere LC-MS/MS-Methoden wurden zur Bestimmung Maduramicins in Futtermittel, Eiweiß und Eigelb optimiert. Diese wurden zur wurden zur Untersuchung des Übergangs des Kokzidiostatikums aus dem Futtermittel in das Ei benötigt. Dazu wurde eine Fütterungsstudie mit Legehennen durchgeführt. Futtermittel mit drei Konzentrationen von Maduramicin bis zum Höchstgehalt in Futtermittel für Nichtzieltierarten wurden hergestellt und je einer Gruppe von Legehennen verabreicht. Das aufgenommene Maduramicin ging ausschließlich ins Eigelb über, es ergab sich eine Carry-over-Rate von 8 %. Der für Eier festgelegte Höchstgehalt von 2 µg/kg wurde überschritten, obwohl die Konzentrationen Maduramicins in den verfütterten Futtermitteln unterhalb des Höchstgehaltes für Futtermittel lagen. Als Folge dieser Ergebnisse wurde der Maduramicin-Höchstgehalt in Ei auf 12 µg/kg angepasst. Der in Verordnung (EG) Nr. 124/2009 festgelegte Höchstgehalt wurde durch die Verordnung (EU) 610/2012 geändert. / Prevention of coccidosis by anticoccidial feed additives is of great economic importance in poultry farming. Application of these substances is regulated by European law and is a matter of official feed and food control requiring appropriate determination methods for coccidiostats. In this study, liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS-) methods for the quantification of coccidiostats in feed and eggs were developed. The influence of the sample material resulted in poor method performance. These matrix effects are intensively investigated in other analytical fields like drug or pesticide analysis. In contrast, there are limited data concerning matrix effects in LC-MS/MS analysis in feedingstuffs. This study therefore focussed on the systematic investigation of factors influencing matrix effects during analysis of coccidiostats. The findings were implemented in the development and validation of a method for the determination of cross-contamination levels of authorized coccidiostats in feed for non-target animals. This method was optimized for the determination of the anticoccidial feed additive maduramicin in feed, egg white, and egg yolk for a carry-over study. By means of the conducted feeding trial with laying hens the carry-over of maduramicin from feed into eggs was comprehensively characterized. Three feedingstuffs containing different levels of maduramicin up to the maximum tolerable level in non-target animal feed were prepared and fed to groups of ten laying hens. Maduramicin is exclusively transferred into egg yolk, and a carry-over rate into whole eggs of 8 % was calculated. Although the applied diets were in compliance with the maximum level in feed, resulting concentrations in whole eggs exceeded the maximum level in eggs. As a consequence of these findings, the maximum permitted level of maduramicin in eggs was adapted to 12 µg/kg. The maximum level assigned by Regulation (EC) No. 124/2009 was amended in Regulation (EU) 610/2012.

A ocorrência de fármacos residuais no meio ambiente pode levar a efeitos adversos, tanto em organismos aquáticos como em terrestres. Os fármacos, tanto humanos como de uso veterinário, são absorvidos pelo organismo e estão sujeitos a reações metabólicas e, uma quantidade significativa dessas substâncias, tanto a original como seus metabólitos, são excretadas. Por não serem facilmente biodegradáveis, terem propriedades farmacológicas danosas quando administrados indevidamente, através de água contaminada, é crescente a preocupação com o destino destes fármacos residuais, principalmente com relação à avaliação de risco ambiental. A ocorrência destes resíduos, principalmente em águas superficiais e sistemas de abastecimento, vem sendo objeto de estudos em diversos países, principalmente na Europa. Por isso, a detecção, a eliminação e a investigação do destino destes compostos estrógenos em ecossistemas aquáticos têm tido prioridade na química ambiental. Estes produtos são encontrados nos corpos d\'água em baixas concentrações, de \'mü\'g L-1 a \'eta\'g L-1 e, mesmo assim, podem afetar os organismos por meio da bioacumulação. Estudos toxicológicos relacionados a efeitos crônicos em organismos expostos, são escassos. O objetivo do projeto foi adaptar e validar a metodologia analítica, e monitorar a presença de resíduos de hormônios nas águas dos Rios Corumbataí e Piracicaba e amostras de água de abastecimento da cidade de Piracicaba, SP, Brasil. Foram coletadas amostras de água bruta dos Rios Piracicaba e Corumbataí e água de abastecimento residencial da cidade de Piracicaba, SP, no período de novembro de 2007 a abril de 2009. Dentre os hormônios estudados estão o 17\'alfa\'-etinilestradiol (17\'alfa\'-EE2), 17\'beta\'-estradiol (17\'beta\'-E2) e estriol (E3). O método foi baseado na extração em fase sólida (SPE) e cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC-DAD) / The occurrence of drug residues in the environment may lead to adverse effects, both on land and aquatic organisms. The drugs, for human and veterinary use, are absorbed by the organism and are subjected to metabolic reactions and a significant amount of these substances, both the original and its metabolites are excreted. By being not easily biodegradable and by having harmful pharmacological properties when administered through contaminated water, there is a growing concern about the fate of these residual drugs, especially in respect to the assessment of environmental risks. The occurrence of these residues, especially in surface Waters and water supplies has been the subject of studies in several countries, mainly in Europe. Therefore, detection, investigation and disposal of the fate of these estrogens compounds in aquatic ecosystems have a high priority in the field of environmental chemistry. These products are found in water bodies in low concentrations, from \'mü\'g L-1 a \'eta\'g L-1 and can still affect the organisms due to bioaccumulation. Toxicological studies related to chronic effects in the exposed organisms are scarce. The goals of this project was to adapt and validate the analytical methodology, and monitor the presence of hormone residues in the Waters of the Corumbataí and Piracicaba rivers and samples of water supply from the city of Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. We collected samples of raw water from the rivers of Piracicaba and Corumbataí and residential water supply from the city of Piracicaba in the period November 2007 to April 2009. Among the hormones studied are the 17\'alfa\'-ethinylestradiol (17\'alfa\'-EE2), 17\'beta\'-estradiol (17\'beta\'-E2) and estriol (E3). The method is based on solid phase extraction (SPE) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD)

Apresenta-se a comparação de duas metodologias para pré-concentração e determinação de Cd em amostras de águas estuarinas e água de mar. As metodologias comparadas foram a extração líquido-líquido no ponto nuvem e a extração por retenção dos analitos em fase sólida. Em ambos os métodos houve necessidade de formação de complexos de Cd previamente à extração. Dois agentes complexantes foram testados o O-O dietilditiofosfato (DDTP), e 1-(2- tiazolilazo)-2-naftol (TAN). A extração no ponto nuvem foi realizada utilizando o surfactante não iônico octil fenoxipolietoxietanol (Triton X-114) que à temperatura de \'40 graus\'C forma uma fase micelar viscosa de volume reduzido. Após separação das micelas, estas foram dissolvidas em solução de ácido nítrico facilitando a análise por ICP OES. A pré-concentração em fase sólida por retenção dos íons complexados foi realizada colocando-se uma coluna de Amberlite XAD 4 em sistema em fluxo. Foram ajustadas as vazões de carregamento da coluna e eluição de forma a aumentar os fatores de pré-concentração. Os volumes das soluções finais foram de 2 mL de forma a obter resultados em triplicata na análise por ICP OES. A quantificação foi efetuada pelo método das adições de padrão. Os dois procedimentos foram comparados considerando as eficiências relativas de pré-concentração, a facilidade para efetuar os procedimentos e a percentagem de recuperação das medidas / Two methodologies for determination of Cd in estuarine and seawater samples were studied. The methodologies for pre-concentration of analytes by surfactant-mediated cloud point extraction and solid phase retention in a resin column were compared. In both cases the prior formation of Cd ions complexes with O,O-diethyldithiophosphate (DDTP) and 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphtol (TAN) was carried out. The Cloud point extraction was attained with the non ionic surfactant ctylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol (Triton X-114) at \'40 graus\'C . The reduced volume of surfactant micelles was easily separated and dissolved using the solution containing nitric acid which facilitate the analysis by ICP OES. The solid phase pre-concentration was performed by retention of the complexed ions in the Amberlite XAD 4 resin column in a flow scheme. The flow-rates for sample loading and elution were adjusted to increase the preconcentration factor. The final volumes collected of 2 mL were further analyzed in triplicate by ICP OES. Quantification was performed by the standard addition method. Both pre-concentration procedures were compared considering the relative efficiencies, the complexity of procedures and recovery percent of results

A ocorrência de fármacos residuais no meio ambiente pode levar a efeitos adversos, tanto em organismos aquáticos como em terrestres. Os fármacos, tanto humanos como de uso veterinário, são absorvidos pelo organismo e estão sujeitos a reações metabólicas e, uma quantidade significativa dessas substâncias, tanto a original como seus metabólitos, são excretadas. Por não serem facilmente biodegradáveis, terem propriedades farmacológicas danosas quando administrados indevidamente, através de água contaminada, é crescente a preocupação com o destino destes fármacos residuais, principalmente com relação à avaliação de risco ambiental. A ocorrência destes resíduos, principalmente em águas superficiais e sistemas de abastecimento, vem sendo objeto de estudos em diversos países, principalmente na Europa. Por isso, a detecção, a eliminação e a investigação do destino destes compostos estrógenos em ecossistemas aquáticos têm tido prioridade na química ambiental. Estes produtos são encontrados nos corpos d\'água em baixas concentrações, de \'mü\'g L-1 a \'eta\'g L-1 e, mesmo assim, podem afetar os organismos por meio da bioacumulação. Estudos toxicológicos relacionados a efeitos crônicos em organismos expostos, são escassos. O objetivo do projeto foi adaptar e validar a metodologia analítica, e monitorar a presença de resíduos de hormônios nas águas dos Rios Corumbataí e Piracicaba e amostras de água de abastecimento da cidade de Piracicaba, SP, Brasil. Foram coletadas amostras de água bruta dos Rios Piracicaba e Corumbataí e água de abastecimento residencial da cidade de Piracicaba, SP, no período de novembro de 2007 a abril de 2009. Dentre os hormônios estudados estão o 17\'alfa\'-etinilestradiol (17\'alfa\'-EE2), 17\'beta\'-estradiol (17\'beta\'-E2) e estriol (E3). O método foi baseado na extração em fase sólida (SPE) e cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC-DAD) / The occurrence of drug residues in the environment may lead to adverse effects, both on land and aquatic organisms. The drugs, for human and veterinary use, are absorbed by the organism and are subjected to metabolic reactions and a significant amount of these substances, both the original and its metabolites are excreted. By being not easily biodegradable and by having harmful pharmacological properties when administered through contaminated water, there is a growing concern about the fate of these residual drugs, especially in respect to the assessment of environmental risks. The occurrence of these residues, especially in surface Waters and water supplies has been the subject of studies in several countries, mainly in Europe. Therefore, detection, investigation and disposal of the fate of these estrogens compounds in aquatic ecosystems have a high priority in the field of environmental chemistry. These products are found in water bodies in low concentrations, from \'mü\'g L-1 a \'eta\'g L-1 and can still affect the organisms due to bioaccumulation. Toxicological studies related to chronic effects in the exposed organisms are scarce. The goals of this project was to adapt and validate the analytical methodology, and monitor the presence of hormone residues in the Waters of the Corumbataí and Piracicaba rivers and samples of water supply from the city of Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. We collected samples of raw water from the rivers of Piracicaba and Corumbataí and residential water supply from the city of Piracicaba in the period November 2007 to April 2009. Among the hormones studied are the 17\'alfa\'-ethinylestradiol (17\'alfa\'-EE2), 17\'beta\'-estradiol (17\'beta\'-E2) and estriol (E3). The method is based on solid phase extraction (SPE) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD)

Apresenta-se a comparação de duas metodologias para pré-concentração e determinação de Cd em amostras de águas estuarinas e água de mar. As metodologias comparadas foram a extração líquido-líquido no ponto nuvem e a extração por retenção dos analitos em fase sólida. Em ambos os métodos houve necessidade de formação de complexos de Cd previamente à extração. Dois agentes complexantes foram testados o O-O dietilditiofosfato (DDTP), e 1-(2- tiazolilazo)-2-naftol (TAN). A extração no ponto nuvem foi realizada utilizando o surfactante não iônico octil fenoxipolietoxietanol (Triton X-114) que à temperatura de \'40 graus\'C forma uma fase micelar viscosa de volume reduzido. Após separação das micelas, estas foram dissolvidas em solução de ácido nítrico facilitando a análise por ICP OES. A pré-concentração em fase sólida por retenção dos íons complexados foi realizada colocando-se uma coluna de Amberlite XAD 4 em sistema em fluxo. Foram ajustadas as vazões de carregamento da coluna e eluição de forma a aumentar os fatores de pré-concentração. Os volumes das soluções finais foram de 2 mL de forma a obter resultados em triplicata na análise por ICP OES. A quantificação foi efetuada pelo método das adições de padrão. Os dois procedimentos foram comparados considerando as eficiências relativas de pré-concentração, a facilidade para efetuar os procedimentos e a percentagem de recuperação das medidas / Two methodologies for determination of Cd in estuarine and seawater samples were studied. The methodologies for pre-concentration of analytes by surfactant-mediated cloud point extraction and solid phase retention in a resin column were compared. In both cases the prior formation of Cd ions complexes with O,O-diethyldithiophosphate (DDTP) and 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphtol (TAN) was carried out. The Cloud point extraction was attained with the non ionic surfactant ctylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol (Triton X-114) at \'40 graus\'C . The reduced volume of surfactant micelles was easily separated and dissolved using the solution containing nitric acid which facilitate the analysis by ICP OES. The solid phase pre-concentration was performed by retention of the complexed ions in the Amberlite XAD 4 resin column in a flow scheme. The flow-rates for sample loading and elution were adjusted to increase the preconcentration factor. The final volumes collected of 2 mL were further analyzed in triplicate by ICP OES. Quantification was performed by the standard addition method. Both pre-concentration procedures were compared considering the relative efficiencies, the complexity of procedures and recovery percent of results

Antibiotics are biologically active and are globally used in humans and animal medicine for treatment and in sub-therapeutic amounts as growth promoters in animal husbandry, aquaculture and agriculture. After excretion, inappropriate disposal and discharge from drug production facilities they enter into water bodies either as intact drugs, metabolites or transformed products. In water environments they promote development of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) which could serve as a reservoir and be horizontally transferred to human-associated bacteria and thus contribute to AR proliferation. Measurement of antibiotics has been revolutionized with the usage of solid phase extraction (SPE) for enrichment followed by Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS). On-line SPE coupled to LC-MS/MS has the advantages of high sample throughput, low sample preparation time and minimal solvent utilization.  Constructed wetlands (CWs) are potential alternatives to conventional treatment plants to remove organic pollutants. A study at Plönninge, Halmstad was performed to assess the impact of bacterial community pattern and development of resistance in spiked (n=4) and control (n=4). CWs were spiked with antibiotics at environmentally relevant concentrations continuously for 25 days. Shannon Index (H’) were used to determine the bacterial diversity and real-time PCR detected and quantified antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) sulI, tetA, tetB, erm, dfrA1, qnrS and vanB and class 1 integrons intI1. No significant differences in bacterial compositions or in ARGs or integron concentrations could be discerned between exposed and control wetlands. A study conducted in Northern Pakistan showed that the antibiotic levels in most studied rivers were comparable to surface water measurements in unpolluted sites in Europe and the US. However, high levels of antibiotics were detected in the river in close vicinity of the 10 million city Lahore, e.g. 4600 ng L−1 sulfamethoxazole. Highest detected levels were at one of the drug formulation facilities, with measured levels up to 49000 ng L−1 of sulfamethoxazole for example. The highest levels of ARGs detected, sul1 and dfrA1, were directly associated with the antibiotics detected at the highest concentrations, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. In the study in UK, sewage epidemiology surveillance is used to measure the oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), metabolite of oseltamivir (parent drug) in twenty four time proportional hourly influent samples from two WWTPs and then back-calculations were made to assess the compliance of drug.  Predicted users of oseltamivir, based on measured OC in waste water, ranged from 3-4 and 120-154 people for the two WWTP catchments, respectively, which are consistent with the projected use from national antiviral allocation statistics, 3-8 and 108-270, respectively. Scenario analysis suggests compliance was likely between 45-60% in the study regions.

Chromatography and extraction techniques, and also chemiluminescence have been utilized to develop new rapid and informative tools in the evaluation of long-term properties and environmental effects of polymeric materials. Methods were developed for classification of materials and for early and rapid degradation detection. Degradable polyethylene films were classified on the basis of their incorporated prooxidant systems using chromatographic fingerprinting of carboxylic acids, the dominating type of degradation product. The fingerprints were also shown to be useful for prediction of the degradation states and evaluation of the degradation mechanisms. Classification and prediction models were obtained by Multivariate Data Analysis, where the diacids were grouped according to both their type of prooxidant system and their state of degradation. The use of total luminescence intensity (TLI) measurements was also investigated as a means of classifying films and for the early detection of degradation. Comparisons were carried out with common techniques, e.g. FTIR and DSC, after both thermal and UV oxidation. TLI gave an earlier detection of degradation and was more sensitive than carbonyl index and crystallinity measurements to relative differences in degradation between the materials. It furthermore offered complementary information regarding changes in activation energies during the course of the degradation. The results were compared with the chromatographic fingerprints. A new way to evaluate the low temperature long-term stabilisation efficiency of antioxidants was investigated. A prooxidant was used to obtain catalytic oxidation, instead of using thermal acceleration, to evaluate the stabilisation efficiency of antioxidants at low temperatures but still during reasonably short aging times. Comparisons were made between polypropylene films stabilised with primary antioxidants (Irganox 1076, Irganox 1010 and α-tocopherol) with and without the prooxidant manganese stearate at different temperatures. The relative efficiencies of the antioxidants obtained under prooxidant acceleration test correlated better than thermal acceleration test with the results of a long-term low temperature test. Additives in plastic packaging materials may affect the environment after migration from the packaging to e.g. their contents, especially if they consist of organic aqueous solutions or oils. The use of Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME) for the specific task of extraction from an organic aqueous solution such as a simulated food or pharmaceutical solution consisting of 10 vol-% ethanol in water was investigated. Methods were developed and evaluated for extraction both with direct sampling and with headspace sampling. If the extraction method and temperature were selected to suit the concentration levels of the analytes, it was possible to quantify several degradation products simultaneously. Comparisons made with Solid Phase Extraction showed the advantage of SPME for this purpose. / QC 20100929

Les agents anti-infectieux sont utilisés pour traiter ou prévenir les infections chez les humains, les animaux, les insectes et les plantes. L’apparition de traces de ces substances dans les eaux usées, les eaux naturelles et même l’eau potable dans plusieurs pays du monde soulève l’inquiétude de la communauté scientifique surtout à cause de leur activité biologique. Le but de ces travaux de recherche a été d’étudier la présence d’anti-infectieux dans les eaux environnementales contaminées (c.-à-d. eaux usées, eaux naturelles et eau potable) ainsi que de développer de nouvelles méthodes analytiques capables de quantifier et confirmer leur présence dans ces matrices. Une méta-analyse sur l’occurrence des anti-infectieux dans les eaux environnementales contaminées a démontré qu’au moins 68 composés et 10 de leurs produits de transformation ont été quantifiés à ce jour. Les concentrations environnementales varient entre 0.1 ng/L et 1 mg/L, selon le composé, la matrice et la source de contamination. D’après cette étude, les effets nuisibles des anti-infectieux sur le biote aquatique sont possibles et ces substances peuvent aussi avoir un effet indirect sur la santé humaine à cause de sa possible contribution à la dissémination de la résistance aux anti-infecteiux chez les bactéries. Les premiers tests préliminaires de développement d’une méthode de détermination des anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées ont montré les difficultés à surmonter lors de l’extraction sur phase solide (SPE) ainsi que l’importance de la sélectivité du détecteur. On a décrit une nouvelle méthode de quantification des anti-infectieux utilisant la SPE en tandem dans le mode manuel et la chromatographie liquide couplée à la spectrométrie de masse en tandem (LC-MS/MS). Les six anti-infectieux ciblés (sulfaméthoxazole, triméthoprime, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, clarithromycin et azithromycin) ont été quantifiés à des concentrations entre 39 et 276 ng/L dans les échantillons d’affluent et d’effluent provenant d’une station d’épuration appliquant un traitement primaire et physico- chimique. Les concentrations retrouvées dans les effluents indiquent que la masse moyenne totale de ces substances, déversées hebdomadairement dans le fleuve St. Laurent, était de ~ 2 kg. En vue de réduire le temps total d’analyse et simplifier les manipulations, on a travaillé sur une nouvelle méthode de SPE couplée-LC-MS/MS. Cette méthode a utilisé une technique de permutation de colonnes pour préconcentrer 1.00 mL d’échantillon dans une colonne de SPE couplée. La performance analytique de la méthode a permis la quantification des six anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées municipales et les limites de détection étaient du même ordre de grandeur (13-60 ng/L) que les méthodes basées sur la SPE manuelle. Ensuite, l’application des colonnes de SPE couplée de chromatographie à débit turbulent pour la préconcentration de six anti-infectieux dans les eaux usées a été explorée pour diminuer les effets de matrice. Les résultats obtenus ont indiqué que ces colonnes sont une solution de réchange intéressante aux colonnes de SPE couplée traditionnelles. Finalement, en vue de permettre l’analyse des anti-infectieux dans les eaux de surface et l’eau potable, une méthode SPE couplée-LC-MS/MS utilisant des injections de grand volume (10 mL) a été développée. Le volume de fuite de plusieurs colonnes de SPE couplée a été estimé et la colonne ayant la meilleure rétention a été choisie. Les limites de détection et de confirmation de la méthode ont été entre 1 à 6 ng/L. L’analyse des échantillons réels a démontré que la concentration des trois anti-infectieux ciblés (sulfaméthoxazole, triméthoprime et clarithromycine) était au dessous de la limite de détection de la méthode. La mesure des masses exactes par spectrométrie de masse à temps d’envol et les spectres des ions produits utilisant une pente d’énergie de collision inverse dans un spectromètre de masse à triple quadripôle ont été explorés comme des méthodes de confirmation possibles. / Anti-infectives are used to treat or prevent infections in humans, animals, insects and plants. The occurrence of traces of these substances in wastewaters, natural waters and even drinking water has caused concern among the scientific community especially because of their biological activiy. The goal of this research was to study the occurrence of anti-infectives in contaminated environmental waters (wastewaters, natural waters, and drinking water) and to develop new analytical methods able to quantitate and confirm their presence in these matrices. A meta-analysis on the occurrence of anti-infectives in contaminated environmental waters demonstrated that at least 68 parent compounds and 10 transformation products have been quantified to date. Environmental concentrations vary between 0.1 ng/L and 1 mg/L depending on the compound, the matrix and the source of contamination. According to this study, detrimental effects of anti-infectives on aquatic biota are possible and these substances could also affect indirectly human health because of their possible contribution to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Preliminary tests on the development of a method of determination of anti-infectives in wastewaters showed the main difficulties to overcome during solid-phase extraction (SPE) as well as the importance of the detector selectivity. A novel method of determination of anti-infectives was described using off-line tandem SPE and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Six target anti-infectives (sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, clarithromycin and azithromycine) were quantitated at concentrations between 39 and 276 ng/L in samples of influent and effluent collected from a primary and physico-chemical wastewater treatement plant. Reported effluent concentrations indicate that the mean mass of these substances discharged daily in the St. Lawrence River was ~ 2 kg. In order to reduce total analysis time and simplify sample preparation, a new on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS was presented. This method used a column-switching technique to preconcentrate 1.00 mL of sample in an on-line SPE column. Method analytical performance allowed the quantitation of six anti-infectives in municipal wastewaters and limits of detection were of the same magnitude (13-60 ng/L) than methods based in offline SPE. Next, the application of turbulent flow chromatography on-line SPE columns for the preconcentration of six anti-infectives in wastewaters was explored. Results showed that these columns are an interesting alternative to traditional on-line SPE columns. Finally, in order to allow analysis of anti-infectives in surface and drinking water, we developed an on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS method using large-volume injections (10 mL). Breakthrough volumes of several on-line SPE columns were estimated and the column having the best retention, Strata-X, was chosen. Method detection and confirmation limits were between 1 and 6 ng/L. Analysis of real samples indicated that the concentration of the three target anti-infectives (sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim and clarithromycin) was lower that the method detection limits. Accurate mass measurement by time-of-flight mass spectrometry and product ion spectra obtained by a reversed-energy ramp in a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer were explored as alternative confirmation methods.