<p>Background:</p><p>The Swedish fashion market today quickly becomes too small, even for the new companies, and they are quick to take the step abroad and launch their internationalisation process. With a focus on the four Swed-ish fashion companies Filippa K, Acne Jeans, Nudie Jeans and Whyred, we have analysed how these representatives of the industry have interna-tionalised themselves. The companies have chosen different ways to promote their brand and how to control the perceived image of the brand. As there is a lack of earlier in-depth studies into this particular question of the Swedish Fashion industry, we have set out to investigate how this is done.</p><p>Purpose:</p><p>The purpose of the thesis is to look at the internationalisation process of Swedish fashion companies, with a focus on the growth and the penetra-tion of the international markets in order to determine the key success factors for successful international expansion. We will also investigate to what extent branding, country of origin (COO) and psychic distance to geographical markets has an influence on the internationalisation process and its success.</p><p>Method:</p><p>We used a qualitative approach and conducted a case study consisting of four Swedish fashion companies. The data have been collected through interviews and secondary sources. The information has been put into dif-ferent models for internationalisation, branding and key success factors.</p><p>Conclusion:</p><p>We have interpreted the collected data together with the theories used, thereafter drawn the conclusions that the key Success factors that have taken these firms so far and have been important in the building of the successful brands/companies, are in fact to a large degree COO, rela-tions in the Swedish fashion Industry and the creation of superior prod-ucts. The companies have both similar and specific factors for their suc-cess on the international market.</p>

L’internationalisation est un défi pour les petites et moyennes entreprises (PME) qui y voient le moyen de diversifier leurs marchés et d’accélérer leur croissance. Cette recherche porte sur la mise en place des stratégies tête-de-pont, démarche consistant à s’implanter dans un pays pour réexporter vers des marchés tiers voisins. Nous mobilisons la littérature relative à l’internationalisation des PME - les approches processuelles et born global - et aux stratégies de localisation. L’étude empirique réalisée comporte deux volets : (1) une phase exploratoire, conduite auprès de 18 entreprises identifiées parmi les PME manufacturières de la région Rhône-Alpes détenant au moins une filiale à l’étranger et (2) une étude de cas multiples menée auprès de cinq d’entre elles. Nous avons réalisé 66 entretiens et cinq observations non-participantes. Nos résultats révèlent que le déploiement des stratégies tête-de-pont s’explique par des motivations liées aux entreprises, aux réseaux et aux pays tête-de-pont et cibles. Nous explicitons aussi les actions engagées ainsi que les difficultés rencontrées par les PME dans le cadre de cette démarche. Notre recherche met en relief le rôle clé des individus et des réseaux ainsi que l’existence de quatre étapes de déploiement : (1) la réalisation d’exportations sporadiques dans les pays cibles, (2) l’étude des marchés cibles, (3) l’harmonisation des procédures administratives et des systèmes d’information et (4) l’augmentation du niveau d’engagement. Les stratégies tête-de-pont peuvent faciliter l’accès à de nouveaux marchés tout en limitant l’engagement de ressources et l’exposition aux risques. Elles constituent une nouvelle forme d’internationalisation permettant aux PME de valoriser leurs actifs dans les pays matures et émergents. / Internationalization represents a challenge for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) allowing them to access new markets and accelerate their growth. This research focuses on the implementation of gateway strategies, defined as the decision to establish a subsidiary abroad in order to access neighbouring markets. We refer to the literature related to SMEs’ internationalization – more specifically the processual and born global approaches – and to location strategies. The empirical study is twofold: (1) an exploratory phase concerning 18 SMEs identified through manufacturing SMEs located in the Rhône-Alpes region with at least one subsidiary abroad, (2) a multiple case study developed with five of them. We conducted 66 interviews and five non-participant observations. Our results show that the implementation of gateway strategies can be explained by motivations linked to companies, networks and gateway and target countries. We highlight the main actions developed as well as difficulties faced by SMEs using this type of approach. Our research emphasizes the key role of individuals and networks, as well as the existence of four main stages of implementation: (1) sporadic exports to target countries, (2) the analysis of target markets, (3) the harmonization of administrative procedures and information systems, (4) the increase of local commitment. Gateway strategies can facilitate foreign market entries while limiting the commitment of resources and exposure to risks. They represent a new form of internationalization allowing SMEs to value their assets in mature and emerging countries.

Denna studie undersöker internationaliseringsprocessen av e-handelsbolag med fokus på hur psychic distance, ett koncept som hanterar upplevda skillnader i bland annat språk, kultur och politik mellan olika marknader, spelar in i internationaliseringen. Syftet med studien är alltså att undersöka vad den befintliga litteraturen inom fältet för International Business studier säger om sambandet och vilken roll psychic distance spelar i internationaliseringen av e-handelsbolag. Detta kommer göras genom att besvara följande två forskningsfrågor: Vilken roll spelar psychic distance i e-handelsbolags internationaliseringsprocess? samt På vilket sätt har betydelsen av psychic distance förändrats i och med e-handeln? Studien baseras på teorierna kring psychic distance och nätverk från Uppsalamodellens internationaliseringsteorier, CAGE-ramverket samt e-handel och ”the virtuality trap” för att undersöka sambandet mellan dessa traditionella teorier och nya tekniska utvecklingar i form av e-handel. För att undersöka detta har en systematisk litteraturstudie baserad på 29 artiklar från fem olika journaler på fältet genomförts. Resultatet från denna analyserades sedan med hjälp av en tematisk analys för att identifiera mönster i materialet. Detta ledde fram till ett antal slutsatser och det konstaterades att psychic distance spelar en roll även i internationaliseringen av e-handelsbolag men inte riktigt samma roll som för traditionella bolag. Det konstaterades även att betydelsen av psychic distance har ändrats mycket i och med e-handeln och att även om teknik sägs minska avstånd så kan avstånden ändå inte helt elimineras. Slutligen konstateras att det finns mer att lära om psychic distance i e-handelssammanhang och att mer forskning på området är önskvärt. / This study examines the internationalization process of e-commerce companies with a focus on psychic distance, a concept that deals with perceived differences in, among other things, language, culture and politics in different markets and how this plays a role in internationalization. The purpose of the studies is to examine what the existing literature within the field of International Business studies says about the role psychic distance plays in the internationalization of e-commerce companies. This was done by answering the following two research questions: What role does psychic distance play in the internationalization process of e-commerce companies? as well as In what way has the meaning of psychic distance changed with e-commerce? The study is based on the theories around psychic distance and networks from the Uppsala model's internationalization theories, the CAGE-distance framework as well as e-commerce and the virtuality trap to examine the connection between these traditional theories and new technological developments in the form of e-commerce. To investigate this, a systematic literature review, based on 29 articles from five different scientific journals within the field of interest was conducted. The results from these were then analyzed using a thematic analysis to identify patterns in the material. This led to several conclusions, and it was established that psychic distance does plays a role in the internationalization of e-commerce companies, but not quite the same role as for traditional companies. It is also established that the meaning of psychic distance has changed a lot with e-commerce and that even though technology is said to reduces distance, the distance cannot be eliminated. Finally, it is established that there is more to learn about psychological distance in an e-commerce context and that more research in the area is desirable. This thesis is written in Swedish.

[pt] O objetivo dessa tese é investigar em que medida duas importantes perspectivas teóricas – o modelo de processo de internacionalização de Uppsala e a perspectiva de Born Global - explicam aspectos do processo de internacionalização de uma organização não governamental (ONG) internacional, sob a ótica do processo. Para alcançar este objetivo, esta tese fez uso do método do estudo de caso único longitudinal. O estudo busca preencher uma lacuna teórica, uma vez que poucos estudos acadêmicos foram encontrados sobre o tema. A revisão de literatura compreende uma análise das perspectivas teóricas adotadas, de modo a definir as principais categorias de análise aplicadas ao caso, assim como uma revisão dos conceitos associados a ONGs de forma geral, além de referenciar a limitada literatura encontrada sobre internacionalização dessas organizações. O caso estudado é o da ONG denominada Médicos Sem Fronteiras (Médecin Sans Frontières). A seleção do caso foi feita em função da grande disponibilidade de dados secundários, tais como relatórios, livros, teses, entrevistas publicadas, documentos etc. , uma vez que se trata de uma organização grande e respeitada. O uso de depoimentos publicados foi bastante útil, uma vez que permitiu colher dados em maior profundidade e qualidade do que seria possível utilizando-se entrevistas locais. A análise comportou, inicialmente, uma descrição detalhada do histórico do caso, de modo a oferecer um panorama da evolução da ONG ao longo do tempo. O passo seguinte consistiu na análise das categorias, examinando-se em que medida cada uma das categorias previamente destacadas se manifestaria, ou não, no caso da ONG estudada. Procurou-se, nessa etapa, detalhar dados e depoimentos em suporte à interpretação de cada categoria. Concluiu-se que, de fato, há elementos de confluência entre as duas perspectivas teóricas adotadas, mas que as especificidades das ONGs sugerem a necessidade de adaptação de tais perspectivas ao contexto específico em que atuam essas organizações. O estudo encontra-se limitado pelo fato de analisar um único caso, ainda que em profundidade, sugerindo-se a realização de futuras pesquisas que possam contribuir para o objetivo de conhecer melhor de que forma ocorre o processo de internacionalização dessas organizações. / [en] The purpose of this thesis is to investigate to what extent two important theoretical perspectives - the Uppsala internationalization model and the Born-globals perspective - explain aspects of the internationalization process of an international non-governmental organization (NGO) from the process perspective. To achieve this goal, this thesis made use of a longitudinal single case study method and seeks to fill a theoretical gap, since few studies have been found on the subject. In the literature review section, an analysis of the theoretical perspectives is adopted in order to define the main categories to be applied to the case. Also a review of the concepts associated to NGOs in general and specific studies on internationalization of NGOs are presented. The case studied selected is the NGO called Doctors Without Borders (Médecin Sans Frontières). The selection of this case was made due to the large availability of secondary data, such as reports, books, theses, published interviews, documents, etc. , since it is a large and respected organization. The use of published testimonials was very useful, since it allowed to collect data in greater depth and quality than would be possible using local interviews. The analysis proceeds as following: first, a detailed description of the case history was made in order to provide an overview of the evolution of the NGO over time. Second, the selected categories were analized in order to examine the extent each of it would or would not manifest itself in the case of the NGO studied. At this stage, we sought to detail data and statements to support the interpretation of each category. Overall, there are elements of confluence between the two theoretical perspectives adopted. Nevertheless, as NGOs being a very specific organization, further studies are suggest in order to adapt those perspectives to this specific context in which these kind of organizations operate. The study is limited by the fact that only a single case has been analyse, although in depth, suggesting the continuance of debate in future studies that can contribute to the theorethical development of the internationalization process of these type of organization.

Syftet med denna studie är att skapa en ökad förståelse för hur svenska industriföretag kan arbeta på en utländsk marknad för att ta sig runt det psykiska avståndet. Detta har gjorts genom att titta på hur ABB, Sandvik, Scania och Volvo Cars arbetar i Malaysia med nätverk och olika åtgärder för att hantera skillnader mellan länderna. Den reviderade Uppsalamodellens definition av nätverk och CAGE-ramverkets definition av psykiska avstånd används för att studera företagensoch medias narrativ. En kvalitativ metod används där en innehållsanalys av sekundärkällor har kodats för att ta ut information som varit relevant för denna studie. De fyra företagen har använt sig av nätverk för att kunna bedriva en fungerande verksamhet och två av företagen har vidtagit åtgärder för att minska det psykiska avståndet. Erkännanden: Vi skulle vilja tacka vår handledare Lena Zander och seminariegruppen för diskussionerna och den konstruktiva feedback de bidragit med under uppsatsskrivandet. / The purpose of this study is to create a better understanding of how Swedish industrial companies can work in a foreign market to overcome the psychic distance. This has been done by looking at how ABB, Sandvik, Scania and Volvo Cars work in Malaysia with networks and different measures to manage differences between the countries. The definition of networks used in the revised Uppsala model and the definition used in the CAGE-distance framework of psychic distance are applied to study corporate and media narratives. A qualitative method is used where a content analysis of secondary sources has been coded to extract information relevant to this study. The four companies have used networks to operate and two of the companies have taken steps to reduce psychic distance. Acknowledgements: We would like to thank our supervisor Lena Zander and the seminar group for the discussions and constructive feedback they have provided during the essay process.

The growth within internationalization has changed the world at a rapid pace, with businesses expanding into foreign markets on a daily basis. Similarly, to the growth within internationalization, social media has changed how marketing activities are conducted throughout the world. Influencer marketing has been one of those drivers of growth, changing the way that brands market themselves on a global basis. Therefore, there is a need to understand the relationship between internationalization and influencer marketing but determining the role that internationalization plays in the way that influencer marketing is used within businesses that plan on expanding to new markets. In relation to how traditional marketing tools are adapted through the use of influencer marketing during the internationalization process. For the data collection two interviews were conducted along with one questionnaire with 109 respondents. The study has followed the same structure as can be seen in the frame of reference, according to two main subjects: Internationalization and E-marketing. The findings gathered through the questionnaires showed that credibility was highly valued in relation to that the use of local influencers was preferred to increase trust and credibility between the brand, influencer and their target audience. Along with credibility being more valued by the respondents than an influencer's network size. The findings from the interviews show that the use of influencer marketing is greatly dependent on the needs and preference of the individual market. While one brand preferred a more united front, yet still adapting to the Chinese market in terms of using local influencers and social media platforms. The other brand favored using local influencers in their different markets in order to best reach their consumers. Influencer marketing was used by the two brands to build brand awareness in new markets, through different influencer networks, yet the size of the network was not important for one of the brands, instead it was the connections within the network that were important.

There has been prior research on the internationalization process of retail firms. However, most of the research has investigated the developed countries' markets. There has been little research on the internationalization process of retail firms, especially in the emerging Asian markets. The emerging Asian markets are different from developed markets. Therefore, internationalization challenges and hindrances are dissimilar in this region than in developed countries' markets. Previously, there have been numerous researches on IKEA and other Swedish retail firms on the internationalization process. However, most of the research study has been done on its movement to developed markets. There has been little research done on IKEA's internationalization into emerging Asian markets. There are different challenges faced by firms, when entering into the emerging Asian market and during the business in these markets. However, the emerging Asian markets are different from other continents, especially the Western and developed markets. This research study aims to fill the existing knowledge gap by exploring the challenges that IKEA faces in emerging Asian markets. In addition to this, by the research, we seek to develop our understanding of the challenges faced by Swedish retail firms while entering emerging Asian markets. Furthermore, by exploring the challenges that retail firms face in the emerging Asian markets, we also aim to provide possible solutions on how IKEA and other retail firms can resolve or tackle the issues they face in emerging Asian markets.

This thesis investigates Swedish trade promotion in Lebanon from 1920 to 1975. The aim is to increase knowledge about how actors in a small open western economy tried to develop their economic interests in an emerging market characterized by great uncertainty. Here, the promising economic outlook coincided with a high degree of political instability. The study analyzes the interactions between Swedish trade related authorities, organizations and companies in their efforts to develop Swedish business interests in Lebanon: a developing country in a conflict-affected area with potentially large and emerging markets, where the cultural distance to Sweden was significant. In this study a model, which is known as the Uppsala model, forms an analytical interpretative framework for studying the actions and strategies of the trade related authorities and organizations despite the model's specific perspective on the establishment process of firms abroad. Based on the taxonomy, which is the basis of this interpretative model, this interpretative framwork has been possible to apply because of the assumed interactions between trade related authorities/organizations and companies when establishing commercial presence in new markets. The assumption is that the trade related authorities and organizations enhance for companies in various ways, while there is an economic-political interest that the state strives to reach by encouraging companies to set up business in new markets. By using this model, the events have been systematized through a historical generalization and periodization of Swedish trade promotion and organization. Added with the type of knowledge development that has taken place. In this way, the role of authorities and organizations in trade promotion and organizational build-up abroad has been highlighted. The results show that Swedish trade promotion attempts and organization in Lebanon took place in close cooperation with Swedish trade related authorities and organizations through their information inflows. In practice the companies' needs for information and assistance were reflected in the work that has been exercised by the authorities and organizations. By playing an important role in information building, escalating network positions and at the same time providing the companies with specific information, the trade related authorities and organizations became key actors in the development of Swedish trade relations with Lebanon. The study concludes that new perspectives can be obtained by including trade related authorities and organizations when using the Uppsala model in future studies. / Denna avhandling studerar svenska handelsfrämjande åtgärder i Libanon 1920-1975. Syftet är att öka kunskapen om hur aktörer i en liten öppen västekonomi försökte utveckla sina ekonomiska intressen på en ny framväxande marknad präglad av stor osäkerhet, där lovande ekonomiska utsikter sammanföll med en hög grad av politisk instabilitet. I studien analyseras samspelet mellan svenska handelsrelaterade myndigheter, organisationer och företag i deras strävan att utveckla svenska handels- och affärsintressen i Libanon: ett land som betraktas här som ett utvecklingsland i ett konfliktdrabbat område med potentiellt stora och nya marknader med ett betydande kulturellt avstånd till Sverige. I studien utgör den så kallade Uppsalamodellen den analytiska tolkningsramen för att studera myndigheternas och intresseorganisationernas agerande och strategier, trots att modellens perspektiv bygger på företagens utlandsetablering. Med utgångspunkt i den taxonomi som är grunden i modellen har denna tolkningsram varit möjlig på grund av det samspel som antas finnas mellan företag och myndigheter, särskilt när det gäller etablerandet av en affärsmässig närvaro på en ny och osäker marknad. Antaganden är att myndigheterna på olika sätt underlättar för företagen, samtidigt som det finns ett statligt ekonomisk-politiskt intresse att få företag att etablera sig på nya marknader. Med hjälp av modellen har händelseförloppen systematiserats genom en historisk generalisering och periodisering av svenska handelsfrämjande åtgärder med avseende på organisation och den typ av kunskapsuppbyggnad som skett. Därmed belyses också myndigheternas och organisationernas roll vid företagsetableringar i utlandet. Resultaten visar att företagsetableringsförsöken och organisationen av svensk handel i Libanon skedde i nära samarbete mellan svenska myndigheter och organisationer genom utbyte av information. I praktiken avspeglades företagens behov av information och hjälp i myndigheternas och organisationernas arbete. I och med att myndigheterna/organisationerna deltog i informationsuppbyggnaden, skapandet av nätverkspositioner och samtidigt förmedlade information mellan företagen var dessa betingade som centrala aktörer vid etableringen av svenska handelsförbindelser med Libanon. Studiens slutsats är att nya perspektiv gällande företagsetableringar på utländska marknader kan erhållas genom att inkludera myndigheters och organisationers agerande vid tillämpningen av Uppsala modellen i framtida studier.