Die Beeinflussung der Magnetisierungsrichtung magnetischer Dünnschichten mittels einer elektrischen Spannung, anstatt eines elektrischen Stromes, ist vielversprechend für die energieeffizientere Nutzung magnetischer Bauelemente in der Datenspeicherung und in anderen Technologien. Ein neuartiger Ansatz für solche magnetoelektrischen Materialien ist die Kontrolle des Magnetismus über elektrochemische Reaktionen. Die elektrische Spannung wird dabei über einen flüssigen oder festen Elektrolyten an die magnetische Schicht angelegt, und elektrochemische Grenzflächenreaktionen führen zur reversiblen Kontrolle magnetischer Eigenschaften. Bisher wurden dazu hauptsächlich Schichten mit senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie untersucht und zur Charakterisierung nur die Magnetisierungskurven bei angelegter elektrischer Spannung aufgenommen. Für ein tieferes Verständnis der zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen ist eine zusätzliche Untersuchung der magnetischen Mikrostruktur notwendig. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wurde eine elektrochemische Zelle für flüssige Elektrolyten entwickelt, die mit magneto-optischer Kerr-Mikroskopie kompatibel ist. Mit dieser Messzelle wurden in situ Untersuchungen des Einflusses elektrochemischer Reaktionen auf die magnetischen Eigenschaften von FeOx/Fe-Dünnschichtsystemen durchgeführt. Die mittels Sputtern hergestellten FeOx/Fe Schichten zeigen eine uniaxiale magnetische Anisotropie mit der Magnetisierungsrichtung in der Ebene. Winkelaufgelöste Kerr-Mikroskopiemesssungen zeigten einen magnetisch blockierten Zustand entlang der harten Achse, der eine erhöhte Koerzivität und Remanenz aufweist. Dieser konnte auf die Wechselwirkung zwischen geladenen Néel-Domänenwand-Ausläufern zurückgeführt werden. Anhysteretische Messungen entlang der magnetisch harten Achse ermöglichten die Quantifizierung der uniaxialen Anisotropiekonstanten KU. Bei Anlegen einer elektrischen Spannung an die FeOx/Fe Schichten in einem 1 mol/l LiOH Elektrolyten wurde eine reversible elektrochemische Umwandlung von FeOx zu metallischen Fe mittels in-situ Ramanspektroskopie nachgewiesen. Diese Umwandlung führt gleichzeitig zu einer Aufhebung des blockierten magnetischen Zustands. Dadurch konnte ein reversibles An- und Ausschalten der Koerzivität und Remanenz erreicht werden. Über in situ Kerrmikroskopiemessungen konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass gleichzeitig mit der Abnahme der Koerzivität bei der elektrochemischen Umwandlung auch eine Erhöhung von KU und eine Vergrößerung der magnetischen Domänen auftritt. Mit diesen Analysen konnte die Verringerung der Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Néel-Domänenwand-Ausläufern als Ursache für die elektrische Kontrolle der Koerzivität aufgedeckt werden. Weiterhin spielt eine verringerte Pinningkraft der magnetischen Pinningzentren durch die FeOx – Fe-Umwandlung eine Rolle. Die elektrochemische Kontrolle der Koerzivität erlaubte es, bei einem geringen magnetischen Feld ein 180°-Schalten der Magnetisierung über eine elektrische Spannung zu erreichen. Die dazu benötigte Schaltenergie wurde zu 121 mJ pro 38.5 mm2 in 60 s abgeschätzt, was sehr vielversprechend für eine Steigerung der Energieeffizienz magnetischer Bauelemente ist. Die elektrochemische Umwandlung von FeOx zu Fe in 1 mol/l LiOH wurde auf das Schichtsystem FeOx/Fe/IrMn mit unidirektionaler Anisotropie in der Schichtebene angewandt. In diesem System kommt es durch die Kopplung von Ferromagnet/Antiferromagnet zu einer unidirektionalen Verschiebung der Hysterese (Exchange Bias). Hier konnte erstmals eine nichtflüchtige, elektrische Kontrolle des Exchange Bias erreicht werden. Mit XPS und dem Vergleich mit einem Model für den Exchange Bias wurde die elecktrochemisch-induzierte Schichtdickenvariation des Ferro-magneten als Ursache aufgedeckt. Die elektrochemische Kontrolle des Exchange Bias ermöglichte eine laterale Strukturierung der damit assoziierten magnetischen Domänen. Damit wurde hier eine neue Struk-turierungsmethode für unidirektionale Systeme vorgestellt. Gegenüber konventionellen Strukturierungsmethoden (beispielweise über Ionenbombardierung) kann so eine elektrochemische Strukturierung vorteilhaft sein, da sie bei Umgebungsbedingungen und ohne Vakuumtechnik funktioniert. Eine unidirektionale Anisotropie mit der Magnetisierungsrichtung senkrecht zur Schichtebene wird im System GdOx/Pd/Co/Pd/NiO erzielt. In diesem System wird ausgenutzt, dass das Anlegen einer elektrischen Spannung über elektrochemische-Reaktionen zur H-Anlagerung in den Co- und Pd-Schichten führt, was eine Änderung der senkrechten magnetischen Anisotrope zur Folge hat. Im Schichtsystem mit Co als ferromagnetischer und NiO als antiferromagnetischer Schicht konnte erstmals mittels einer elektrischen Spannung eine senkrecht zur Schichtebene ausgeprägte Exchange-Bias-Hysterese reversibel an- und ausgeschaltet werden. Für mehrere Zyklen werden Effekte beobachtet, die Trainings-Effekten an konventionellen Exchange-Bias-Systemen ähneln. Das Anlegen einer elektrischen Spannung an GdOx/Pd/GdCo/Pd/NiO mit GdCo als ferrimagnetischer Lage führt zu einer Umkehrung der Exchange-Bias-Hysterese und deren vorzeichenbehafteter Verschiebung, welches auf die Umkehrung der magnetischen Ausrichtung der Untergitter zurückgeführt wird.:1 Introduction 1 2 Fundamentals of magnetic thin films 5 3 State of the Art 11 3.1 Voltage control of magnetism 11 3.2 Electrochemical control of magnetism 14 4 Methods 21 4.1 Film fabrication 21 4.2 Ex-situ and in-situ analytical characterization 22 4.3 Electrochemical characterization 24 4.4 Magneto-optical Kerr Magnetometry and Microscopy 25 5 Combining Kerr microscopy and electrochemistry – the in situ cell 29 6 In-plane uniaxial anisotropy and blocked domain state in FeOx/Fe thin films 33 6.1 Microstructure and composition 33 6.2 Magnetically blocked state in pristine FeOx/Fe thin film 34 7 Voltage control of FeOx/Fe thin films with in-plane uniaxial anisotropy 41 7.1 Voltage control of hysteresis by electrochemical reduction of FeOx 41 7.2 Inverse scaling of coercivity and anisotropy revealed by anhysteresis 44 7.3 Voltage control of magnetic domains 46 7.4 Magnetic de-blocking due to change of Néel wall interactions 48 7.5 Switching of magnetization by a low voltage and energy efficiency 51 7.6 Energy efficiency and application potential for data storage and actuation 53 7.7 Interim conclusion 54 8 Voltage control of FeOx/Fe/IrMn thin films with in-plane unidirectional anisotropy 57 8.1 Characterization of the pristine state exchange biased thin films 57 8.2 Electrochemical modification of EB – voltage dependency 58 8.3 Electrochemical modification of EB – time dependency 61 8.4 Model for voltage control of EB by electrochemistry 64 8.5 Non-volatile and reversible voltage control of exchange bias 65 8.6 Nonvolatile change of oxidation state and layer thickness 67 8.7 Electrochemical patterning of EB and magnetic domain state 68 8.8 Interim conclusion 70 9 Voltage control of magnetic thin films with perpendicular unidirectional anisotropy 73 9.1 Co thin films with perpendicular unidirectional anisotropy 73 9.2 Voltage control of EB in Co/Pd/NiO thin films 73 9.3 Interim conclusion 81 9.4 Voltage control of ferrimagnetic GdCo/Pd/NiO thin film 81 10 Evaluation with regard to perspective applications 83 11 Summary 87 12 Appendix 93 References 107 List of Figures 121 Publication List 123 Acknowledgments 125 Symbols 127 Statement of Authorship 129

No description available.

Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) based on Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonic acid) (PEDOT:PSS) are a benchmark system in organic bioelectronics. In particular, the superior mechanical properties and the ionic-electronic transduction yield excellent potential for the field of implantable or wearable sensing technology. However, depletion-mode operation PEDOT:PSS-based OECTs cause high static power dissipation in electronic circuits, limiting their application in electronic systems. Hence, having control over the threshold voltage is of utmost technological importance. Here, PEDOT:PSS-based dual-gate OECTs with solid-state electrolyte where the threshold voltage is seamlessly adjustable during operation are demonstrated. It is shown that the degree of threshold voltage tuning linearly depends on the gate capacitance, which is a straightforward approach for circuit designers to adjust the threshold voltage only by the device dimensions. The PEDOT:PSS-based dual-gate OECTs show excellent device performance and can be pushed to accumulation-mode operation, resulting in a simplified and relaxed design of complementary inverters.

På den svenska järnvägen används två olika återledningssystem på kontaktledningen, autotransformatorsystem och boostertransformatorsystem. De flesta sträckor i Sverige har idag boostertransformatorsystem. I takt med utvecklingen av järnvägen så ställs det andra krav på banorna, till exempel införandet av höghastighetståg. Problemformuleringen blev således frågan om vilket system som föredras vid upprustning eller nybyggnad av järnvägen. Beräkningar på överföringsförmåga beroende på spänningshållningen i systemen samt en modell för en livscykelkostnadsanalys gav svaren på hur skillnaden ser ut i dessa system från ett tekniskt och ekonomiskt perspektiv. Resultaten visar att båda systemen fungerar på den svenska järnvägen. Beroende på hur trafiken, banutformningen samt kostnaderna för ett enskilt system ser ut kan båda systemen användas. Resultatet visar också att vid låg trafiktäthet har AT-systemet större energiförluster än ett BT-system. Vid hög trafiktäthet har ett BT-system större energiförluster än ett AT-system. Resultaten visar också att autotransformator-systemet har en bättre överföringsförmåga av effekt men är dyrt. Boostertransformatorsystemet å andra sidan har en sämre överföringsförmåga av effekt men är billigare. / On the Swedish railway, two different return systems are used on the overhead line, autotransformer systems and booster transformer systems. Most routes in Sweden today have booster transformer systems. In step with the development of the railway, other requirements are placed on the lines, for example the introduction of high-speed trains. The problem formulation thus became the question of which system is preferred for upgrading or new construction of the railway. Calculations of transmission capacity depending on the voltage control in the systems and a model for a life cycle cost analysis gave the answers to what the difference looks like in these systems from a technical and economic perspective. The results show that both systems work on the Swedish railway. Depending on the traffic, track design and costs of an individual system, both systems can be used. The results also show that at low traffic density, the AT system has greater energy losses than a BT system. At high traffic density, a BT system has greater energy losses than an AT system. The results show that the autotransformer system has a better transmission capacity of power but is expensive. The booster transformer system, on the other hand, has a poorer transmission capacity of power but is cheaper.

[pt] Após a incidência de inúmeros colapsos de tensão em sistemas elétricos de potência por todo o mundo, a segurança de tensão tornou-se um assunto de extrema importância. O fenômeno de estabilidade de tensão deve-se à operação do sistema com carregamento elevado e se manifesta pela existência de uma máxima transferência de potência pela rede e ações de controle de tensão tendo efeito oposto ao usual. Com o aumento da inserção de geração distribuída, usualmente conectada à rede de distribuição existente e em tensões mais baixas, a possibilidade de ocorrência do fenômeno precisa ser investigada. É demonstrada a possibilidade de ocorrência em barras com geradores ou compensadores síncronos, onde a máxima potência gerada poderia estar limitada e o controle de tensão poderia ter o efeito oposto ao esperado. É apresentado o ferramental utilizado na avaliação das condições de estabilidade de tensão composto de índices com significado físico e matemático. Estabeleceu-se um procedimento para realizar simulações nos sistemas-teste IEEE 34 Barras e 70 Barras. É analisado o impacto do gerador nas condições de estabilidade de tensão, no perfil de tensão em regime permanente e nas perdas de potência ativa. Concluiu-se que, nos testes realizados, a injeção de potência ativa pelo gerador foi limitada por tensões fora da faixa permitida e não por problemas de estabilidade de tensão. / [en] After several incidence of voltage collapse in electric power systems around the world, the voltage security has become a matter of utmost importance. The phenomenon of voltage stability is due to the operation of the system with high loading and is manifested by the existence of a maximum power transfer over the network and efforts to control voltage having the opposite effect than usual. With increased integration of distributed generation, usually connected to the existing distribution network at lower voltages, the possibility of occurrence of the phenomenon should be investigated. It is demonstrated the possibility of occurrence in buses of synchronous generators or synchronous condensers, where the maximum generated power could be limited and the voltage control could have the opposite effect. It presented the tools used in assessing the conditions of voltage stability composite indexes with physical and mathematical meaning. I was established a procedure for performing simulations on IEEE 34 bus and 70 bus test systems. It analyzed the impact of the generator under the conditions of voltage stability, voltage profile in the steady state and the power losses. It was concluded that, in tests, the injection of active power from the generator was limited by voltage out of range allowed and not by voltage stability problems.

This thesis is an effort to investigate the operation and the performanceof modular multilevel converters (M2Cs). Proven to be the most promisingtopology in high-voltage high-power applications, it is necessary to put aneffort in understanding the physical laws that govern the internal dynamicsof such converters, in order to design appropriate control methods. AlthoughM2Cs belong to the well-studied family of voltage-source converters (VSCs),and claim a modular structure, their control is significantly more complicatedcompared to two- or three-level VSCs, due to the fact that a much highernumber of switches and capacitors are needed in such a topology. This thesishighlights the important parameters that should be considered when designingthe control for an M2C, through analyzing its internal dynamics, and alsosuggests ways to control such converters ensuring stable operation withoutcompromising the performance of the converter.Special focus is given on ac motor-drive applications as they are very demandingand challenging for the converter performance. Interactions betweenthe internal dynamics and the dynamics of the driven motor are experimentallyinvestigated. The problem of operating the converter when connectedto a motor standing still is visited, even under the condition that a greatamount of torque and current are requested, in order to provide an idea forthe converter requirements under such conditions. Finally, an optimization ofthe converter operation is suggested in order to avoid overrating the convertercomponents in certain operation areas that this is possible.All analytical investigations presented in this thesis are confirmed by experimentalresults on a laboratory prototype converter, which was developedfor the purposes of this project. Experimental verification proves the validityof the theoretical investigations, as well as the correct performance of thecontrol methods developed during this project on a real, physical converter,hoping that the results of this thesis will be useful for large-scale implementations,in the mega- or even giga-watt power range. / Denna avhandling är ett försök att undersöka drift och egenskaper avmodulära multinivåomvandlare (M2C:er). Eftersom denna topologi anses varaden mest lovande inom högspänings-högeffekt-tillämpningar är, och somett underlag för att kunna formulera lämpliga styrmetoder, är det nödvändigtatt lägga kraft i att försöka förståde fysikaliska lagar som styr den inredynamiken i sådana omvandlare. Även om M2C:erna tillhör den välstuderadefamiljen av spänningsstyva omvandlare (VSC:er), och har en modulärstruktur, är deras reglering avsevärt mer komplicerad jämfört med två- ellertre-nivåomvandlare, eftersom ett mycket större antal switchar och kondensatorerär nödvändiga i en sådan topologi. Denna avhandling sätter fingretpå de parametrar som måste beaktas när man konstruerar regleringen för enM2C, genom att analysera den interna dynamiken, samt att föreslå sätt attstyra sådana omvandlare såatt stabil drift kan säkerställas utan att negativtpåverka prestanda.Ett speciellt fokus läggs på växelströmsmotordrifter eftersom de är särskiltutmanande vad gäller prestanda. Växelverkan mellan den interna dynamikenoch motorns dynamik undersöks experimentellt. Problemet att driva motornvid stillestånd behandlas även i fallet med hög ström och högt moment för atterhålla kunskap om kraven påomvandlaren i sådana fall. Slutligen föreslås enoptimering av omvandlarens drifttillstånd för att undvika överdimensioneringav omvandlarens komponenter i de fall detta är möjligt.Alla analytiska undersökningar som läggs fram i denna avhandling är bekräftadegenom experimentella resultat från en laboratorieomvandlare, somutvecklats inom ramen för detta arbete. Den experimentella verifieringen bevisargiltigheten av alla teoretiska undersökningar. Den visar också på demycket goda prestanda som de utvecklade styrmetoderna har vid drift aven verklig fysisk omvandlare. Förhoppningen är att resultaten från detta arbetekan komma till använding i storskaliga implementerinar i mega- ellergiga-wattklassen. / <p>QC 20141201</p>

Cette thèse porte sur la commande de réseaux multi-terminaux à courant continu (MTDC) basés sur des convertisseurs multiniveaux modulaires (MMCs).Tout d’abord, notre attention se focalise sur l'énergie stockée en interne dans le MMC qui constitue un degré de liberté additionnel apporté par sa topologie complexe. Afin d’en tirer le meilleur parti, les limites de l’énergie interne sont formulées mathématiquement.Afin de maîtriser la dynamique de la tension DC, l’utilisation de ce nouveau degré de liberté s’avère d’une grande importance. Par conséquent, une nouvelle de stratégie de commande, nommée «Virtual Capacitor Control», est proposée. Cette nouvelle méthode de contrôle permet au MMC de se comporter comme s’il possédait un condensateur de taille réglable aux bornes, contribuant ainsi à l’atténuation des fluctuations de la tension DC.Enfin, la portée de l’étude est étendue au réseau MTDC. L'un des défis majeurs pour un tel système est de faire face à une perte soudaine d'une station de convertisseur qui peut entraîner une grande variation de la tension du système. A cet effet, la méthode de statisme de tension est la plus couramment utilisée. Cependant, l'analyse montre que l'action de contrôle souhaitée risque de ne pas être réalisée lorsque la marge disponible de réserve de puissance du convertisseur est insuffisante. Nous proposons donc une nouvelle structure de contrôle de la tension qui permet de fournir différentes actions en fonction du signe de l'écart de la tension suite à une perturbation, associée à un algorithme qui détermine les paramètres de statisme en tenant compte du point de fonctionnement et de la réserve disponible à chaque station. / The scope of this thesis includes control and management of the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)-based Multi-Terminal Direct Current (MTDC).At first, our focus is paid on the internally stored energy, which is the important additional degree of freedom brought by the complex topology of MMC. In order to draw out the utmost of this additional degree of freedom, an in-depth analysis of the limits of this internally stored energy is carried out, and they are mathematically formulated.Then, this degree of freedom of the MMC is used to provide a completely new solution to improve the DC voltage dynamics. A novel control strategy, named Virtual Capacitor Control, is proposed. Under this control, the MMC behaves as if there were a physical capacitor whose size is adjustable. Thus, it is possible to virtually increase the equivalent capacitance of the DC grid to mitigate the DC voltage fluctuations in MTDC systems.Finally, the scope is extended to MMC-based MTDC grid. One of the crucial challenges for such system is to cope with a sudden loss of a converter station which may lead to a great variation of the system voltage. The voltage droop method is commonly used for this purpose. The analysis shows that the desired control action may not be exerted when the available headroom of the converter stations are insufficient. We thus propose a novel voltage droop control structure which permits to provide different actions depending on the sign of DC voltage deviation caused by the disturbance of system voltage as well as an algorithm that determines the droop parameters taking into account the operating point and the available headroom of each station.

The work deals with relatively new components allowing electric energy accumulation – ultracapacitors. It focuses on their application in traffic systems – in independent electric vehicles. Design and verification of a system with ultracapacitor and DC/DC adaptive converter was done. Control of the adaptive converter modifies very positively the time wafeform of the traction accumulator current during the drive cycle. The designed connection of ultracapacitor and DC/DC converter implemented in the drive structure of experimental electric vehicle with induction machine contributes to increment the action radius of the vehicle by 16% (determined by experimental verification). This result was achived particularly by limitation of traction accumulator current peaks, And by more effective storage of energy gained by recuperative braking of the vehicle as well. The core of the system is a control of the adaptive converter in order to provide an active filtration of the accumulator’s current to its long-period mean value, i.e. elimination of current (power) peaks. These are caused by acceleration from non-zero initial vehicle speed or by recuperative braking. This is done by a subsidiary current loop. The converter has a superior voltage regulation loop, which sets in long-time period the voltage of ultracapacitors to the proper value – indirectly dependent on the speed of the vehicle. This ensures the appropriate energy management of the ultracapacitor. In the following, properties of test set of ultracapacitors were verified. Finally, methods of suppression of capacity variability influence in series connection of these components were compiled and critically reviewed.

[pt] O incremento de geração fotovoltaica de grande porte traz consideráveis mudanças nas características operativas e dinâmicas do sistema quando este é submetido a grandes distúrbios. Um dos problemas técnicos mais relevantes é a estabilidade transitória, já que a geração intermitente ligada ao sistema por conversores eletrônicos não contribui para o aumento da inércia total do sistema. Entretanto, os conversores eletrônicos podem, potencialmente, trazer novas oportunidades de controle rápido para dar suporte aos geradores síncronos em resposta a um distúrbio severo. No presente trabalho propõe uma estratégia de controle para inversores fotovoltaicos baseado na injeção da corrente com um grande impacto na resposta transitória do ângulo do rotor da máquina síncrona, identificada através da análise de sensibilidade dos autovalores e dos fatores de participação. Ao fazer isso, é possível aumentar a potência ativa da máquina síncrona próximo do seu valor pré-falta, reduzindo o desequilíbrio entre o torque elétrico e mecânico. A estratégia de controle proposta foi testada experimentalmente, utilizando um inversor e uma montagem máquina síncrona-motor e, através da simulação de um sistema híbrido com um sistema fotovoltaico de grande porte. Os resultados mostram que a estratégia de controle proposta não está apenas em conformidade com os requisitos dos código da rede para melhorar a estabilidade da tensão durante uma perturbação grave, mas também é capaz de manter a estabilidade transitória da rede provando, assim, ser uma melhor alternativa em relação à capacidade FRT requerida pelos códigos de rede. / [en] The increase in photovoltaic generation has caused changes in the power system s operative and dynamic characteristics when subjected to severe disturbances. One of the most relevant problems associated with this renewable energy source is the transient stability, as renewable generation connected to the system by electronic converters does not contrinute to the increase of the total inertia of the system. However, electronic converters can potentially bring new opportunities for rapid control to support synchronous generators in response to severe disturbance. The present work proposes a control strategy for photovoltaic inverters based on the injection of the current with a major impact on the transient response of the synchronous machine rotor angle, identified through the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis and the participation factors. By doing so, it is possible to increase the synchronous machine active power output close to its pre-fault value, reducing the disequilibrium between mechanical and electrical torque. The proposed control strategy was experimentally tested using an inverter and a synchronous-motor machine assembly and, by simulating a hybrid system with a large photovoltaic system. The results show that the proposed control strategy not only conforms to the grid codes requirements to improve voltage stability during a severe disturbance, but is also able to maintain transient stability thus proving to be a better alternative to the FRT capability required by the grid codes.