Acne vulgaris is the single, most common disease that presents a significant challenge to dermatologists, due to its complexity, prevalence and range of clinical expressions. This condition can be found in 85% of teenage boys and 80% of girls (Gollnick, 2003:1580). Acne can cause serious psychological consequences (low self–esteem, social inhibition, depression, etc.), if left untreated, and should therefore be recognised as a serious disorder (Webster, 2001:15). The pathogenesis of acne is varied, with factors that include plugging of the follicle, accumulation of sebum, growth of Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), and inflammatory tissue responses (Wyatt et al., 2001:1809). Acne treatment focuses on the reduction of inflammatory and non–inflammatory acne lesions, and thus halts the scarring process (Railan & Alster, 2008:285). Non–inflammatory acne lesions can be expressed as open and closed comedones, whereas inflammatory lesions comprise of papules, pustules, nodules and cysts (Gollnick, 2003:1581). Acne treatment may be topical, or oral. Topical treatment is the most suitable first–line therapy for non–inflammatory comedones, or mildly inflammatory disease states, with the advantage of avoiding the possible systemic effects of oral medications (Federman & Kirsner, 2000:80). Topical retinoids were very successfully used for the treatment of acne in the 1980s. Their effectiveness in long–term therapies was limited though, due to local skin irritations that occurred in some individuals (Julie & Harper, 2004:S36). Vitamin A acetate presented a new approach in the treatment of acne, showing less side effects (Cheng & Depetris, 1998:7). In this study, vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate were formulated into semisolid, combination formulations for the possible treatment of acne. Whilst vitamin A controls the development of microcomedones, reduces existing comedones, diminishes sebum production and moderately reduces inflammation (Verschoore et al., 1993:107), zinc normalises hormone imbalances (Nutritional–supplements–health–guide.com, 2005:2) and normalises the secretion of sebum (Hostýnek & Maibach, 2002:35). Although the skin presents many advantages to the delivery of drugs, it unfortunately has some limitations. The biggest challenge in the transdermal delivery of drugs is to overcome the natural skin barrier. Its physicochemical properties are a good indication(s) of the transdermal behaviour of a drug. The ideal drug to be used in transdermal delivery would have sufficient lipophilic properties to partition into the stratum corneum, but it would also have sufficient hydrophilic properties to partition into the underlying layers of the skin (Kalia & Guy, 2001:159). Pheroid technology was also implemented during this study, in order to establish whether it would enhance penetration of the active ingredients across the skin. The Pheroid consists of vesicular structures that contain no phospholipids, nor cholesterol, but consists of the same essential fatty acids that are present in humans (Grobler et al., 2008:283). The aim of this study hence was to investigate the transdermal delivery of vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate, jointly formulated into four topical formulations for acne treatment. Vitamin A acetate (0.5%) and zinc acetate (1.2%) were formulated into a cream, Pheroid cream, emulgel and Pheroid emulgel. An existing commercial product, containing vitamin A acetate, was used to compare the results of the formulated products with. The transdermal, epidermal and dermal diffusion of the formulations were determined during a 6 h diffusion study, using Franz diffusion cells and tape stripping techniques. Experimental determination of the diffusion studies proved that vitamin A acetate did not penetrate through the skin. These results applied to both the formulations being developed during this study, as well as to the commercial product. Tape stripping studies were done to determine the concentration of drug present in the epidermis and dermis. The highest epidermal concentration of vitamin A acetate was obtained with the Pheroid emulgel (0.0045 ug/ml), whilst the emulgel formulation provided the highest vitamin A acetate concentration in the dermis (0.0029 ug/ml). Contrary, for the commercial product, the total concentration of vitamin A acetate in the epidermis was noticeably lower than for all the new formulations studied. Vitamin A acetate concentrations of the commercial product in the dermis were within the same concentration range as the newly developed formulations, with the exception of the emulgel that delivered approximately 31% more vitamin A acetate to the dermis, than the commercial product. Zinc acetate was able to diffuse through full thickness skin, although no flux values were obtained. To eliminate the possibility of endogenous zinc diffusion, placebo formulations (without zinc) were prepared for use as control samples during the skin diffusion investigation. The emulgel and Pheroid emulgel formulations were unable to deliver significant zinc acetate concentrations transdermally, although transdermal diffusion was attained from both the cream and Pheroid cream. Tape stripping experiments with placebo formulations relative to the formulated products revealed that zinc acetate concentrations in the epidermis and dermis were significantly higher when the placebo formulations were applied. However, the average zinc acetate concentration in the dermis, after application of the cream formulation, was significantly higher, compared to when the placebo cream was applied. It could therefore be concluded that no zinc acetate had diffused into the epidermis and dermis from the new formulations, except from the cream formulation. The zinc acetate concentration being measured in the epidermis thus rather represented the endogenous zinc acetate. The cream formulation, however, was probably able to deliver detectable zinc acetate concentrations to the epidermis. Stability of the formulated products was tested under a variety of environmental conditions to determine whether the functional qualities would remain within acceptable limits over a certain period of time. The formulated products were tested for a period of three months under storage conditions of 25°C/60% RH (relative humidity), 30°C/60% RH and 40°C/75% RH. Stability studies included stability indicating assay testing, the determination of rheology, pH, droplet size, zeta–potential, mass loss, morphology of the particles and physical assessment. The formulations were unstable over the three months stability test period. A change in viscosity, colour and concentration of the active ingredients were observed. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Acne vulgaris is the single, most common disease that presents a significant challenge to dermatologists, due to its complexity, prevalence and range of clinical expressions. This condition can be found in 85% of teenage boys and 80% of girls (Gollnick, 2003:1580). Acne can cause serious psychological consequences (low self–esteem, social inhibition, depression, etc.), if left untreated, and should therefore be recognised as a serious disorder (Webster, 2001:15). The pathogenesis of acne is varied, with factors that include plugging of the follicle, accumulation of sebum, growth of Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), and inflammatory tissue responses (Wyatt et al., 2001:1809). Acne treatment focuses on the reduction of inflammatory and non–inflammatory acne lesions, and thus halts the scarring process (Railan & Alster, 2008:285). Non–inflammatory acne lesions can be expressed as open and closed comedones, whereas inflammatory lesions comprise of papules, pustules, nodules and cysts (Gollnick, 2003:1581). Acne treatment may be topical, or oral. Topical treatment is the most suitable first–line therapy for non–inflammatory comedones, or mildly inflammatory disease states, with the advantage of avoiding the possible systemic effects of oral medications (Federman & Kirsner, 2000:80). Topical retinoids were very successfully used for the treatment of acne in the 1980s. Their effectiveness in long–term therapies was limited though, due to local skin irritations that occurred in some individuals (Julie & Harper, 2004:S36). Vitamin A acetate presented a new approach in the treatment of acne, showing less side effects (Cheng & Depetris, 1998:7). In this study, vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate were formulated into semisolid, combination formulations for the possible treatment of acne. Whilst vitamin A controls the development of microcomedones, reduces existing comedones, diminishes sebum production and moderately reduces inflammation (Verschoore et al., 1993:107), zinc normalises hormone imbalances (Nutritional–supplements–health–guide.com, 2005:2) and normalises the secretion of sebum (Hostýnek & Maibach, 2002:35). Although the skin presents many advantages to the delivery of drugs, it unfortunately has some limitations. The biggest challenge in the transdermal delivery of drugs is to overcome the natural skin barrier. Its physicochemical properties are a good indication(s) of the transdermal behaviour of a drug. The ideal drug to be used in transdermal delivery would have sufficient lipophilic properties to partition into the stratum corneum, but it would also have sufficient hydrophilic properties to partition into the underlying layers of the skin (Kalia & Guy, 2001:159). Pheroid technology was also implemented during this study, in order to establish whether it would enhance penetration of the active ingredients across the skin. The Pheroid consists of vesicular structures that contain no phospholipids, nor cholesterol, but consists of the same essential fatty acids that are present in humans (Grobler et al., 2008:283). The aim of this study hence was to investigate the transdermal delivery of vitamin A acetate and zinc acetate, jointly formulated into four topical formulations for acne treatment. Vitamin A acetate (0.5%) and zinc acetate (1.2%) were formulated into a cream, Pheroid cream, emulgel and Pheroid emulgel. An existing commercial product, containing vitamin A acetate, was used to compare the results of the formulated products with. The transdermal, epidermal and dermal diffusion of the formulations were determined during a 6 h diffusion study, using Franz diffusion cells and tape stripping techniques. Experimental determination of the diffusion studies proved that vitamin A acetate did not penetrate through the skin. These results applied to both the formulations being developed during this study, as well as to the commercial product. Tape stripping studies were done to determine the concentration of drug present in the epidermis and dermis. The highest epidermal concentration of vitamin A acetate was obtained with the Pheroid emulgel (0.0045 ug/ml), whilst the emulgel formulation provided the highest vitamin A acetate concentration in the dermis (0.0029 ug/ml). Contrary, for the commercial product, the total concentration of vitamin A acetate in the epidermis was noticeably lower than for all the new formulations studied. Vitamin A acetate concentrations of the commercial product in the dermis were within the same concentration range as the newly developed formulations, with the exception of the emulgel that delivered approximately 31% more vitamin A acetate to the dermis, than the commercial product. Zinc acetate was able to diffuse through full thickness skin, although no flux values were obtained. To eliminate the possibility of endogenous zinc diffusion, placebo formulations (without zinc) were prepared for use as control samples during the skin diffusion investigation. The emulgel and Pheroid emulgel formulations were unable to deliver significant zinc acetate concentrations transdermally, although transdermal diffusion was attained from both the cream and Pheroid cream. Tape stripping experiments with placebo formulations relative to the formulated products revealed that zinc acetate concentrations in the epidermis and dermis were significantly higher when the placebo formulations were applied. However, the average zinc acetate concentration in the dermis, after application of the cream formulation, was significantly higher, compared to when the placebo cream was applied. It could therefore be concluded that no zinc acetate had diffused into the epidermis and dermis from the new formulations, except from the cream formulation. The zinc acetate concentration being measured in the epidermis thus rather represented the endogenous zinc acetate. The cream formulation, however, was probably able to deliver detectable zinc acetate concentrations to the epidermis. Stability of the formulated products was tested under a variety of environmental conditions to determine whether the functional qualities would remain within acceptable limits over a certain period of time. The formulated products were tested for a period of three months under storage conditions of 25°C/60% RH (relative humidity), 30°C/60% RH and 40°C/75% RH. Stability studies included stability indicating assay testing, the determination of rheology, pH, droplet size, zeta–potential, mass loss, morphology of the particles and physical assessment. The formulations were unstable over the three months stability test period. A change in viscosity, colour and concentration of the active ingredients were observed. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Atmospheric inversion has recently become an important tool in estimating CO2 sinks and sources albeit that the existing inversion results are often uncertain and differ considerably in terms of the spatiotemporal variations of the inverted carbon flux. More measurements combined with terrestrial ecosystem information are expected to improve the estimates of global surface carbon fluxes which are used to understand the relationships between variabilities of the terrestrial carbon cycle and anomalies of climatic factors. Inversions using more observations have often been hampered by the intense diurnal variations of CO2 concentrations at continental sites. Diurnal variations of the surface flux are included with atmospheric boundary dynamics in order to improve the atmospheric inversion accuracy. Modeling experiments conducted in this study show that inverse estimates of the carbon flux are more sensitive to the variation of the atmospheric boundary layer dynamics than to the diurnal variation in the surface flux. It is however generally better to consider both diurnal variations in the inversion than to consider only either of them. Forest carbon dynamics is closely related to stand age. This useful terrestrial ecosystem information has been used as an additional constraint to the atmospheric inversion. The inverse estimates with this constraint over North America exhibit an improved correlation with carbon sink estimates derived from eddy-covariance measurements and remotely-sensed data, indicating that the use of age information can improve the accuracy of atmospheric inversions. Terrestrial carbon uptake is found mainly in northern land, and a strong flux density is revealed in southeastern North America in an improved multi-year inversion from 2002 to 2007. The global interannual variability of the flux is dominated by terrestrial ecosystems. The interannual variabilities of regional terrestrial carbon cycles could be mostly explained by monthly anomalies of climatic conditions or short-time extreme meteorological events. Monthly anomalies of the inverted fluxes have been further analyzed against the monthly anomalies of temperature and precipitation to quantitatively assess the responses of the global terrestrial carbon cycle to climatic variabilities and to determine the dominant mechanisms controlling the variations of terrestrial carbon exchange.

Atmospheric inversion has recently become an important tool in estimating CO2 sinks and sources albeit that the existing inversion results are often uncertain and differ considerably in terms of the spatiotemporal variations of the inverted carbon flux. More measurements combined with terrestrial ecosystem information are expected to improve the estimates of global surface carbon fluxes which are used to understand the relationships between variabilities of the terrestrial carbon cycle and anomalies of climatic factors. Inversions using more observations have often been hampered by the intense diurnal variations of CO2 concentrations at continental sites. Diurnal variations of the surface flux are included with atmospheric boundary dynamics in order to improve the atmospheric inversion accuracy. Modeling experiments conducted in this study show that inverse estimates of the carbon flux are more sensitive to the variation of the atmospheric boundary layer dynamics than to the diurnal variation in the surface flux. It is however generally better to consider both diurnal variations in the inversion than to consider only either of them. Forest carbon dynamics is closely related to stand age. This useful terrestrial ecosystem information has been used as an additional constraint to the atmospheric inversion. The inverse estimates with this constraint over North America exhibit an improved correlation with carbon sink estimates derived from eddy-covariance measurements and remotely-sensed data, indicating that the use of age information can improve the accuracy of atmospheric inversions. Terrestrial carbon uptake is found mainly in northern land, and a strong flux density is revealed in southeastern North America in an improved multi-year inversion from 2002 to 2007. The global interannual variability of the flux is dominated by terrestrial ecosystems. The interannual variabilities of regional terrestrial carbon cycles could be mostly explained by monthly anomalies of climatic conditions or short-time extreme meteorological events. Monthly anomalies of the inverted fluxes have been further analyzed against the monthly anomalies of temperature and precipitation to quantitatively assess the responses of the global terrestrial carbon cycle to climatic variabilities and to determine the dominant mechanisms controlling the variations of terrestrial carbon exchange.

Submitted by Maria Medeiros (maria.dilva1@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-08-15T13:45:50Z No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILLA KASSAR BORGES - TESE (PPGMet) 2017.pdf: 4598580 bytes, checksum: ef4afc927cf3418b3a0269f56b6304a5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T13:45:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILLA KASSAR BORGES - TESE (PPGMet) 2017.pdf: 4598580 bytes, checksum: ef4afc927cf3418b3a0269f56b6304a5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-23 / Capes / Ambientes áridos e semiáridos correspodem a 1/3 da superfície terrestre, nessas localidades a água é elemento importante e limitante para o crescimento da vegetação e produtividade de biomassa do ecossistema. A região semiárida no Brasil compreende em torno de 11,5% do território nacional, onde 76% desta foi originalmente composta pelo bioma Caatinga, tendo o déficit hídrico como característica marcante, média pluviométrica inferior a 800 mm e temperaturas elevadas de médias anuais variando entre 25oC e 30oC. Pesquisas sobre a dinâmica dos fluxos de massa e energia nesses ambientes não têm recebido tanta atenção, apesar de serem especialmente vulneráveis às alterações ambientais. E, técnicas como a de eddy covariance (EC) tem contribuído para estimar a magnitude e padrões das trocas turbulentas entre o ecossistema e a atmosfera. Neste estudo micrometeorológico, para uma área de Caatinga densa (CD) e outra de Caatinga rala (CR), pertencentes ao Instituto Nacional do Semiárido (INSA) em Campina Grande – PB, durantes os anos 2013 e 2014, observou-se que o albedo (α) e o saldo de radiação (Rn) foram mais intensos na CR em comparação a CD, pois a magnitude da radiação de onda curta incidente esteve mais elevada nessa área. Constatou-se que a maior parte da radiação líquida converteu-se em fluxo de calor sensível (H), principalmente durante o período seco na CR, seguida do fluxo de calor latente (LE) e bem menor partição em fluxo de calor no solo (G), em geral cerca de 50% para H e 20% para LE. Constatou-se através do fechamento do balanço de energia que os fluxos turbulentos (H+LE) foram subestimados em relação à energia disponível à superfície (Rn-G), sendo que na CD essa discrepância foi maior chegando a ser superiores a 30%. O ecossitema nos dois locais de estudo atuou como sumidouros de CO2, sequestrando mais de 700 gC/m2 e 550 gC/m2 para a CD e CR, respectivamente. / Arid and semi-arid environments correspond to 1/3 of the terrestrial surface, in these localities water is an important and limiting element for vegetation growth and ecosystem biomass productivity. The semiarid region in Brazil comprises around 11.5% of the national territory, where 76% of this was originally composed by the Caatinga biome, with water deficit as a striking feature, average rainfall less than 800 mm and high temperatures of annual averages ranging between 25oC and 30oC. Research on the dynamics of mass and energy fluxes in these environments have not received much attention, although they are especially vulnerable to environmental change. And, techniques such as eddy covariance (EC) have contributed to estimating the magnitude and patterns of turbulent exchanges between the ecosystem and the atmosphere. In this micrometeorological study, for an area of dense Caatinga (DC) and another of sparse Caatinga (SC) belonging to the National Institute of the Semiarid (INSA) in Campina Grande - PB, during the 2013 and 2014 years, it was observed that the albedo (α) and the net radiation (Rn) were more intense in the SC compared to DC, since the magnitude of incident short wave radiation was higher in this area. It was found that most of the net radiation it converted to sensible heat flux (H), mainly during the dry period in the SC, followed by the latent heat flux (LE) and much smaller partition in soil heat flux (G), usually about 50% for H and 20% for LE. Through the energy balance closure, it was verified that the turbulent fluxes (H + LE) were underestimated in relation to the available energy to the surface (Rn-G), being that in the DC this discrepancy was greater and reaching more than 30%. The ecosystem at the two study sites acted as CO2 sinks, sequestering more than 700 gC/m2 and 550 gC/m2 for DC and SC, respectively.

Exhausting the thermal power from a fusion tokamak is a critical engineering challenge. The life of components designed for these conditions has a strong influence on the availability of the machine. For a fusion power plant this dependence becomes increasingly important, as it will influence the cost of electricity. The most extreme thermal loading for a fusion power plant will occur in the divertor region, where components will be expected to survive heat fluxes in excess of 10 MW/m² over a number of years. This research focussed on the development of a heat sink module for operation under such conditions, drawing on advanced cooling strategies from the aerospace industry. A reference concept was developed using conjugate Computational Fluid Dynamics. The results were experimentally validated by matching Reynolds numbers on a scaled model. Heat transfer data was captured using a transient thermochromic liquid crystal technique. The results showed excellent agreement with the corresponding numerical simulations. To facilitate comparison against other divertor heat sink proposals, a nondimensional figure of merit for cooling performance was developed. When plotted against a non-dimensional mass flow rate, the reference heat sink was shown to have superior cooling performance to all other divertor proposals to date. Results from Finite Element Analysis were used in conjunction with the ITER structural design criteria to life the heat sink. The sensitivity of life to both boundary conditions, and local geometric features, were explored. The reference design was shown to be capable of exceeding the life requirements for heat fluxes in excess of 15 MW/m². A number of heat sinks, based on the reference design, were fabricated. These underwent non-destructive testing, before experimentation in a high-heat flux facility developed by the author. The heat transfer performance of the tested modules was found to exceed that predicted by numerical modelling, which was concluded to be caused by the fabrication processes used.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-01-31Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:23:43Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_ac_dr_botfca.pdf: 2162493 bytes, checksum: cfb1fbe284f06f4a0cbe2296e71c7ffb (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / No presente trabalho determinou-se no primeiro capítulo o crescimento através dos parâmetros: diâmetro do ramo, comprimento do ramo, número de folhas, número de entrenós e número de frutos a cada 21 dias, em plantas da figueira ‘Roxo de Valinhos’ utilizando cobertura morta, composta por bagaço de cana-de-açúcar triturado, e irrigação, na área experimental do Departamento de Produção Vegetal da Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas da UNESP, Campus de Botucatu-SP. E no segundo capítulo objetivou-se avaliar o tempo de translocação, a relação fonte-dreno nos diferentes órgãos bem como, saber em que órgão se encontraria o carbono-13 após determinados intervalos de tempo, em plantas em estádio reprodutivo e em formação da espécie Ficus carica L. Para tanto, uma folha da figueira considerada adulta através da caracterização fotossintética com um medidor portátil de fotossíntese IRGA-6400, foi colocada dentro de uma câmara de acrílico construída para este fim, e submetida a um ambiente com enriquecimento de 13CO2 por 30 minutos. No experimento tempo de alocação, as plantas de Ficus carica L. foram arrancadas ao longo das horas: 6, 24, 48, 72, 120, 168, 360. Após o tempo especificado as partes (meristema apical, folhas, ramos, caule e sistema radicular) das plantas em estudo foram coletados e imediatamente imersos em nitrogênio líquido (-196 ºC), para evitar que os tecidos permanecessem vivos e conseqüentemente pudessem consumir os fotoassimilados no processo da respiração. As amostras, previamente identificadas foram secas em estufa de circulação forçada a 65º C por 72 horas, em seguida moídas em moinho criogênico, para que houvesse uma perfeita homogeneização, sendo posteriormente analisadas no espectrômetro de massas de razão isotópica, para a determinação do enriquecimento relativo de 13C. Naturalmente a planta apresenta valores... / In this study determined the growth in the first experiment using the parameters: diameter branch, length branch, leaf number, number of internodes and number of fruit every 21 days, plant the fig tree 'Roxo de Valinhos' mulch using, composed of lither sugar cane, and irrigation in the experimental area in the Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, State University of São Paulo. In the second experiment it planned be quizzed, the time of the translocation and allocation of fotoassimilados, as well as, evaluate the relation spring-drain in the different organs like well as, know in that organ would be found the carbon-13 after determined breaks of time, in plants in reproductive stadium of the sort Ficus carica L. A fig tree leaf considered adult through the photosynthetic with a portable meter of photosynthesis IRGA-6400 characterization. Was put inside a acrylic chamber, and submitted to an environment with 13CO2 enrichment for 30 minutes. In experiment time allocation, where the plants of Ficus carica L. were lurches to the long one of the hours: 6, 24, 48, 72, 120, 168, 360. After the time specified the studied plant parts (meristem, sheets, branches, stem and system roots) were collected and immediately immersed in liquid nitrogen (-196 ºC), for avoid that the fabrics remained alive and consequently could consume the fhotosynthates in the breath trial. The samples, previously identified were droughts in of circulation forced to 65º C for 72 hours, right away ground in cryogenic mill, for that had a perfect homogenization, being subsequently analyzed in the mass spectrometry of isotopic reason, for the relative enrichment 13C determination. . Naturally the plant presents values of 13C relative enrichment of -27.92 ‰, allocating more than 90% of the dry mass and the total carbon in the woody part. The results obtained indicated that fig tree ‘Roxo de ...

Syftet med studien var att undersöka barns tankar kring varför olika föremål flyter eller sjunker i olika vätskor. Åtta förskolebarn mellan fem och sex år deltog i undersökningen. Barnen intervjuades i mindre grupper i samband med att de genomförde ett experiment kring densitet. Resultatet visar att barnen framförallt förklarar att vätskorna flyter på varandra för att de har olika vikt och olika egenskaper. Att föremålen flyter på olika ställen förklarar de också med att föremålen har olika vikt, men även med att föremålen fastnar eller att storleken bestämmer om föremålet flyter eller sjunker i vätskorna. Studien visar att barnen har många olika tankar kring varför något flyter eller sjunker men de har inte en korrekt vetenskaplig förklaring till fenomenet. Däremot har de sannolikt erövrat andra kunskaper och erfarenheter som de kan återkomma och relatera till vid andra tillfällen. Genom att synliggöra barnens tankar, blir det troligtvis lättare att som pedagog i förskolan stötta barnens utveckling och lärande. / The aim of the study was to investigate children’s thoughts about objects flotation in different liquids. Eight preschool children aged five to six years were included in the study. Qualitative interviews in small groups have been conducted with the children in an experiment on density. The result shows that the children explained the liquids flotation due to differences in weight and different characteristics. Furthermore, the objects flotation was also explained with the objects weight, but also that the objects can get stuck or that size of the object decides whether it will float or sink in the liquids. The study shows that the children have many thoughts about why some objects floats and some will sink, but they don’t have a proper scientific explanation for the phenomenon. On the other hand, they probably received other skills and experiences that they can return and relate to in other situations. By studying the children's thoughts, it probably will be easier to support children's development and learning as an educator in preschool.

A presente tese envolve um estudo experimental da ebulição convectiva no interior de um dissipador de calor baseado em multi-microcanais. Resultados experimentais para perda de pressão e coeficiente de transferência de calor foram levantados para os hidrocarbonetos R600a (isobutano), R290 (propano) e R1270 (propileno), fluidos com reduzido GWP (Global Warming Potential) e ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential) nulo. O desempenho termo-hidráulico destes fluidos foi avaliado em um dissipador de calor de cobre, contendo cinquenta canais paralelos com seção transversal retangular de 123x494 µm2 , 15 mm de comprimento e área de base de 15x15 mm2. Os experimentos foram realizados para fluxos de calor de até 400 kW/m2, velocidade mássica variando entre 165 e 823 kg/m2s, graus de sub-resfriamento do líquido na entrada da seção de testes de 5, 10 e 15°C e temperaturas de saturação de 21 e 25°C. Os dados experimentais foram amplamente analisados e discutidos, focando o efeito do fluido refrigerante. Oscilações dos sinais de temperatura e pressão foram analisadas parametricamente visando caracterizar efeitos de instabilidades térmicas. Adicionalmente, realizou-se análise comparativa de desempenho dos refrigerantes baseada na 2ª Lei da Termodinâmica. Os dados para hidrocarbonetos foram comparados com resultados de trabalhos prévios para o refrigerante R134a levantados na mesma seção de testes e utilizando a mesma bancada experimental. A partir destes dados, conclui-se que os hidrocarbonetos proporcionam coeficientes de transferência de calor superiores ao R134a. Em geral, o coeficiente de transferência de calor apresenta a seguinte ordem decrescente: R290, R1270, R600a e R134a. No entanto, o R290 necessitou superaquecimentos da parede superiores ao R1270 para iniciar o processo de ebulição. O refrigerante R1270 proporcionou perdas de pressão totais inferiores aos demais fluidos segundo a seguinte ordem decrescente: R600a, R134a, R290 e R1270. O refrigerante R1270 apresentou frequências de oscilação inferiores na temperatura da câmara de saída. Baseado na análise de desempenho da 2ª Lei da Termodinâmica, conclui-se que, as irreversibilidades devido ao processo de transferência de calor foram predominantes quando comparadas àquelas devido à perda de pressão. Através desta análise também constatou-se o melhor desempenho para o refrigerante R290. / The present thesis concerns an experimental study on flow boiling inside a microchannel array. Experimental results for two-phase pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient were acquired for the hydrocarbons R600a (isobutane), R290 (propane) and R1270 (propylene). These fluids present low Global Warming Potential (GWP) and null Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). The cooling performance of these hydrocarbons were evaluated for a copper heat sink containing fifty parallel microchannels. The microchannels are rectangular with cross section of 123x494 µm2, 15 mm length and a footprint area of 15x15 mm2. The experimental evaluation was performed in a test facility located at the Laboratory of Thermal and Fluid Engineering of School of Engineering of São Carlos, University of Sao Paulo. The experiments were performed for heat fluxes up to 400 kW/m2, mass velocities from 165 to 823 kg/m2s, degrees of liquid subcooling at the test section inlet of 5, 10 and 15°C and saturation temperatures of 21 and 25°C. The experimental data were carefully analyzed and discussed focusing on the effects of the fluid on the heat sink thermal hydraulic performance. Fluctuations in the temperature and pressure were analyzed parametrically in order to evaluate thermal instability effects. Additionally, an exergy analysis was performed to evaluate the refrigerant efficiency during convective evaporation. Subsequently, the parametric effects and performance of hydrocarbons were compared with previous results for refrigerant R134a obtained in the same test facility and under the same experimental conditions. The refrigerant R290 provided heat transfer coefficients higher than R600a and R1270. However, R290 needed a degree of wall superheating for the onset of nucleate boiling higher than R1270. Based on the exergy analysis it was concluded that, the irreversibility associated to the heat transfer process are predominant compared with the irreversibility due to the pressure drop. According to the Second Law analyses it was also concluded R290 as the fluid providing the best performance.

A cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum spp.), por acumular sacarose em altas concentrações tem sido o foco de diversas pesquisas bioquímicas e fisiológicas. A relação entre a atividade fotossintética do tecido fonte da folha e o acúmulo de sacarose no órgão dreno, o colmo, ainda não é bem compreendida. Em estudos prévios observou-se que a atividade fotossintética declina durante a maturação do colmo em cultivares comerciais. As folhas de cana-de-açúcar aparentam possuir a capacidade de aumentar o fornecimento de açúcares para o colmo sob condições de aumento da demanda. E ainda, em plantas superiores, o açúcar tem um importante papel no controle do crescimento e desenvolvimento, no entanto, as vias de sinalização e seus correspondentes mecanismos moleculares e metabólicos, ainda estão sendo decifrados. Porém, as informações a respeito da regulação por açúcares são escassas em cana-de-açúcar. Assim, para compreender os mecanismos relacionados ao acúmulo de sacarose e os mecanismos metabólicos de sinalização de açúcares e análogos, realizou-se ensaios de sinalização exógena de açúcares, acompanhando as alterações do transcriptôma e metabolôma, de modo a relacionar essas informações para obtermos uma visão de biologia sistêmica. A partir deste estudo foi possível identificar relações entre a sinalização de açúcares e seus homólogos, o desenvolvimento da cana-de-açúcar e as diversas vias em que estes podem atuar, tais como; glicólise, transportadores de açúcares, genes sinalizadores, metabolismo de sacarose e trealose. No que se refere ao desenvolvimento da planta, notou-se diferenças temporais na maneira pela qual os açúcares são reconhecidos, podendo estar relacionado às alterações de papel da folha (dreno-fonte) ao longo do desenvolvimento. Observou-se uma sensibilidade maior aos 12 meses, do que aos 4 meses, tanto para a ação dos açúcares quanto para o efeito osmótico, em que houveram maiores alterações no perfil de expressão gênica e na quantidade de metabólitos diferenciais. No entanto, as respostas de alterações de expressão e concentração de metabólitos aparentam ser opostas. E ainda, a concentração ótima de açúcar para desencadear uma sinalização positiva, deve ser posteriormente investigada. / Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.), due the capacity of sucrose accumulation in high concentrations has been the focus in diverse biochemical and physiological studies. The relationship between leaf photosynthesis and sugar accumulation in the sink organ, the culm, is still not fully understood. In previous studies it has been observed that photosynthesis declines during culm maturation in commercial cultivars. Sugarcane leaves appears to posess the capacity to increase the sugars supply at the culm under increased conditions demand. In higher plants, sugar has an important role controlling growth and development, however, the signaling networks and their molecular and metabolic components are still not fully understood. To understand the mechanisms related to sugar accumulation and the metabolic mechanisms of sugar signaling, exogenous sugar signaling assays were performed. Followed by transcriptomics and metabolomics analyzes using a systems biology approach. Through this study it was possible to identify the relationship between the sugars and homologues signaling, the sugarcane development and the diverse pathways where they can act, such as glicolysis, sugar transporters, signaling genes, sucrose and trehalose metabolism. At the plant development, it was possible to notice time differences on the way the sugars were recognized, what can be related to the changing leaf roles, (sink-source) through the development. Also a higher sensitivity at 12 months than 4 months, as for the sugar signaling action or as the osmotic effect was observed, which presented higher expression profile and metabolic amount alteration. However the gene expression and metabolic responses seems to be opposite. Still, an optimal sugar concentration to develop a positive signaling should be forward investigated.