Les applications vidéo rencontrent un franc succes dans les nouveaux réseaux de communication. Leur utilisation dans des contextes de plus en plus difficiles : réseaux de paquets non fiables (internet), diffusion vers des récepteurs mobiles via des canaux sans fil, ont requis le développement de nouvelles solutions plus efficaces et mieux adaptées. Les travaux de cette thèse sont une tentative de réponse à ces besoins. Les solutions qui ont été développées peuvent être regroupées en deux ensembles : des solutions issues de travaux nouveaux développés dans un contexte d'utilisation ordinaire et des solutions issues de l'amélioration et l'optimisation de travaux existants développés pour des contextes extrêmes.Le canal de Bernoulli a représenté pour nous le cadre de travail pour le développement des nouvelles solutions. Ainsi pour les applications de diffusion vidéo, nous avons ciblé la protection inégale et avons développé un mécanisme à protection inégale des données vidéo (DA-UEP). Ce mécanisme se situe à proximité de la source vidéo et adapte le niveau de protection des données à leur degré d'importance. Son originalité réside dans sa manière d'intégrer la particularité d'interdépendances des données vidéo dans le générateur de la protection inégale. Dans un travail d'approfondissement et d'exploration, nous avons combiné la protection inégale des couches hautes produite par DA-UEP avec de la protection inégale de la couche physique produite par de la modulation hiérarchique. L'optimisation de ce système a permis d'obtenir des gains significatifs et a validé le bien fondé de cette piste de recherche. Pour les communications vidéo interactives, nous avons évalué les performances du mécanisme Tetrys pour les communications vidéo. Ce mécanisme de codage à la volée avec intégration des acquittements a permis d'obtenir des résultats à la hauteur de ceux obtenus par la protection inégale dans un cadre de diffusion. Ces résultats ont aussi permis de mettre en avant tout le potentiel de ce mécanisme.Pour les canaux satellites mobiles, nous nous sommes intéressés à la diffusion vidéo vers des récepteurs mobiles. Dans ce cadre, nous avons évalué des mécanismes tels que les codes correcteurs d'erreurs, les entrelaceurs de la couche physique et de la couche liaison et les codes à effacement de niveau intermédiaire. Nous avons travaillé sur un canal réaliste en prenant en compte les contraintes pratiques telles que les temps de zapping et la vitesse de déplacement des récepteurs. Nous avons révélé les relations qui existent entre vitesse de déplacement, étalement spatial et qualité de réception. Ainsi, nous avons pu mettre en évidence les combinaisons de mécanismes qui permettent d'obtenir les meilleurs résultats en termes de fiabilité et de temps de zapping dans ce contexte particulier. / Video applications are growing more and more successful in the new communication networks. Their utilization in growing harder context as lossy packet network (Interne), satellitemobile broadcasting wireless channel, call for the developments of more ecient and well adapted solutions. The work done in this thesis is an attempt to answer those new needs. The proposed solutions can be grouped into two sets : solutions based on new works developed for medium context and solutions based on the improvement and optimization of existing works developed for extremes contexts. The Bernoulli channel represented the working environment to develop new solutions. So for video streaming application, we targeted unequal protection mechanisms and developed dependency-aware unequal protection codes (DA-UEP). This mechanism is located near the source application and adapt the protection level to the importance of the data. Its originality comes from its ability to integrate video data dependencies into the protection generator. In a forward work of improvement and exploration, we combined DA-UEP unequal protection from high layers with hierarchical-modulation unequal protection from lower layer. The system optimization achieves substantial gains and validate the righteous of this research area. For conversational video applications, we evaluated the performances of Tetrys in the video communication context. This On-the-y coding mechanism with acknowledgment integration achieves performances as high as those obtained by unequal protection in streaming context. Those performances also advances the high potential of this mechanism. The land mobile satellite channels represented the working environment to improve and optimize existing solutions. We particulary focus on satellite to mobile video broadcasting applications. In this context, we evaluated mechanisms such as forward errors correcting codes (FEC), data interleaving at physical or link layers and forward erasures correcting codes at intermediates layers. The evaluation is made on a realistic satellite channel and takes into account practical constraints such as the maximum zapping time and the user mobility at several speeds. We reveal the existing relations between user velocity, data spreading and reception quality. Consequently, We identied the combinations of mechanisms that give the best performance in terms of reliability and zapping time in this particular framework.

This study sought to determine the effect upon Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) statistic of concurrently violating the assumptions of homogeneity of variance and equal sample sizes. Two forms for the unequal sample size problem were investigated. Kramer's form and the harmonic mean approach were the two unequal sample size procedures studied. The study employed a Monte Carlo simulation procedure which varied sample sizes with a heterogeneity of variance condition. Four thousand experiments were generated. Findings of this study were based upon the empirically obtained significance levels. Five conclusions were reached in this study. The first conclusion was that for the conditions of this study the Kramer form of the HSD statistic is not robust at the .05 or .01 nominal level of significance. A second conclusion was that the harmonic mean form of the HSD statistic is not robust at the .05 and .01 nominal level of significance. A general conclusion reached from all the findings formed the third conclusion. It was that the Kramer form of the HSD test is the preferred procedure under combined assumption violations of variance heterogeneity and unequal sample sizes. Two additional conclusions are based on related findings. The fourth conclusion was that for the combined assumption violations in this study, the actual significance levels (probability levels) were less-than the nominal significance levels when the magnitude of the unequal variances were positively related to the magnitude of the unequal sample sizes. The fifth and last conclusion was that for the concurrent assumption violation of variance heterogeneity and unequal sample sizes, the actual significance levels significantly exceed the nominal significance levels when the magnitude of the unequal variances are negatively related to the magnitude of the unequal sample sizes.

A expansão da cidade de Nampula produz uma realidade a partir da qual se pode construir um entendimento sobre as tendências da urbanização em Moçambique. A reflexão apresentada expõe a urbanização em Moçambique como momento da ocidentalização e como processo que produz uma realidade urbana específica que contempla a ruralidade; especificidade explicada a partir das contradições produzidas pela: ocidentalização que procura produzir um espaço que reproduz o modo de vida determinado pela industrialização e; pela persistência do modo de vida, derivado das sociedades africanas pré-coloniais, cuja reprodução apóia-se sobre o sistema de linhagem. A coexistência dos dois modos de vida é organizada e controlada pelo Estado centralizador num movimento de reprodução da sua hegemonia sobre o espaço. O resultado é um espaço diferencial produto da urbanização desigual. Nesse contexto, a paisagem da cidade de Nampula revela as desigualdades entre áreas onde o espaço construído tem características das cidades ocidentais concebidas durante a colonização portuguesa e aquelas áreas onde a urbanidade é incipiente pela ausência ou deficiência de serviços e infra-estruturas urbanos. A explicação da urbanização desigual passa pelo entendimento da contradição transformação/persistência dos conteúdos do urbano. A especificidade do urbano em Nampula ainda é explicada pela simultaneidade de diferentes lógicas das relações sociais monetarizadas (capitalista); centrada na solidariedade e integração comunitária (do grupo domiciliar) e; da reprodução das elites no poder (do Estado). Essas lógicas determinam a coexistência de diferentes modos de acesso à habitação e ao solo urbano e, através das desigualdades de renda, produzem um espaço urbano diferencial. / The expansion of Nampula city produces a reality from which it is possible to construct an understanding about the urbanization tendencies in Mozambique. The reflection presented exposes the urbanization in Mozambique as a moment of westernization as well as a process that produces a specific urban reality which contemplates the rural life; specificity explained from the contradictions produced by: the westernization that seeks to produce a space which reproduces the life style determined by the process of industrialization and; the persistency of the life style derived from pre-colonial African societies reproduction of which is based upon the lineage system. The coexistence of the two kinds of life style is organized and controlled by centralized State into a movement of its reproduction hegemony upon space. The result is a differential space as a product of unequal urbanization. In that context the landscape of Nampula city reveals the inequalities between areas where the constructed space has western cities shape conceived during the Portuguese colonization and that areas where the urbanity is incipient by the absence or deficiency of urban services and infrastructures. The explanation of the unequal urbanization passes through the understanding of the contradiction transformation/persistency of the urban contents. The specificity of the urban (reality) in Nampula is still explained by the simultaneity of different logics of the social relations mediated by money (capitalist); centred in communitarian solidarity and integration (of the domicile group) and; of the reproduction of the elite on the power (of State). Those logics determine the coexistence of different access ways to the habitation and urban land and, through the rent inequalities they reproduce a differential urban space.

In this thesis, bit-by-bit power allocation in order to minimize mean-squared error (MSE) distortion of a basic communication system is studied. This communication system consists of a quantizer. There may or may not be a channel encoder and a Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulator. In the quantizer, natural binary mapping is made. First, the case where there is no channel coding is considered. In the uncoded case, hard decision decoding is done at the receiver. It is seen that errors that occur in the more significant information bits contribute more to the distortion than less significant bits. For the uncoded case, the optimum power profile for each bit is determined analytically and through computer-based optimization methods like differential evolution. For low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the less significant bits are allocated negligible power compared to the more significant bits. For high SNRs, it is seen that the optimum bit-by-bit power allocation gives constant MSE gain in dB over the uniform power allocation. Second, the coded case is considered. Linear block codes like (3,2), (4,3) and (5,4) single parity check codes and (7,4) Hamming codes are used and soft-decision decoding is done at the receiver. Approximate expressions for the MSE are considered in order to find a near-optimum power profile for the coded case. The optimization is done through a computer-based optimization method (differential evolution). For a simple code like (7,4) Hamming code simulations show that up to 3 dB MSE gain can be obtained by changing the power allocation on the information and parity bits. A systematic method to find the power profile for linear block codes is also introduced given the knowledge of input-output weight enumerating function of the code. The information bits have the same power, and parity bits have the same power, and the two power levels can be different.

abstract: This research is motivated by a deterministic scheduling problem that is fairly common in manufacturing environments, where there are certain processes that call for a machine working on multiple jobs at the same time. An example of such an environment is wafer fabrication in the semiconductor industry where some stages can be modeled as batch processes. There has been significant work done in the past in the field of a single stage of parallel machines which process jobs in batches. The primary motivation behind this research is to extend the research done in this area to a two-stage flow-shop where jobs arrive with unequal ready times and belong to incompatible job families with the goal of minimizing total weighted tardiness. As a first step to propose solutions, a mixed integer mathematical model is developed which tackles the problem at hand. The problem is NP-hard and thus the developed mathematical program can only solve problem instances of smaller sizes in a reasonable amount of time. The next step is to build heuristics which can provide feasible solutions in polynomial time for larger problem instances. The basic nature of the heuristics proposed is time window decomposition, where jobs within a moving time frame are considered for batching each time a machine becomes available on either stage. The Apparent Tardiness Cost (ATC) rule is used to build batches, and is modified to calculate ATC indices on a batch as well as a job level. An improvisation to the above heuristic is proposed, where the heuristic is run iteratively, each time assigning start times of jobs on the second stage as due dates for the jobs on the first stage. The underlying logic behind the iterative approach is to improve the way due dates are estimated for the first stage based on assigned due dates for jobs in the second stage. An important study carried out as part of this research is to analyze the bottleneck stage in terms of its location and how it affects the performance measure. Extensive experimentation is carried out to test how the quality of the solution varies when input parameters are varied between high and low values. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Industrial Engineering 2012

O Brasil enfrenta o desafio de criar mais emprego e ampliar a geração de renda. O desenvolvimento dos pequenos negócios é condição fundamental para que esses objetivos sejam atendidos, pois são intensivos em postos de trabalho e estão em todos os municípios do país. A sociedade por meio do segmento das Micro e Pequenas Empresas prepararam uma proposta, amplamente discutida, tecnicamente elaborada e longamente negociada. A Lei Geral é o novo Estatuto Nacional das Micro Empresas e das Empresas de Pequeno Porte, Instituído pela Lei Complementar nº 123, de 14 de dezembro de 2006, vem estabelecer normas gerais relativas ao tratamento diferenciado e favorecido a ser dispensado às Microempresas - ME e Empresas de Pequeno Porte - EPP no âmbito dos Poderes da União, dos Estados, do Distrito Federal e dos Municípios. Esta Lei vai preparar o Brasil para uma política efetiva de apoio promoção do desenvolvimento, da competitividade e prosperidade. Unifica impostos e contribuição da União, de Estados e Municípios, dispensa o cumprimento de certas obrigações trabalhistas e previdenciárias, facilita o acesso ao crédito ao mercado, confere preferência nas compras públicas para as empresas de pequeno porte e estimula a inovação tecnológica, entre outros benefícios. A utilização do poder de compra governamental significa dar uma função econômica e social à demanda por bens e serviços da administração pública, potencializando o papel do estado como promotor de políticas redistributivas e indutor do desenvolvimento econômico. A atual perspectiva de alterações na legislação brasileira sobre compras governamentais, as análises das experiências internacionais e, principalmente, das experiências bem sucedidas de governos estaduais, corroboram para a viabilidade de se utilizar o poder de compra do Estado de Roraima como um instrumento alternativo na busca pelo desenvolvimento econômico sustentável das Micro e Pequenas Empresas. Através dos dados sobre as compras governamentais do Estado de Roraima, verificou-se que não existe uma política de incentivos para que as compras sejam feitas localmente. Poucas MPE‟s participam da vendas para órgãos públicos. Quanto à dinâmica interna das compras governamentais, apurou-se um elevado desconhecimento por parte dos gestores públicos sobre a importância e o papel que às MPE‟s exercem na economia do estado. Despreparo dos empresários sobre o tema “Compras Públicas” e o que a empresa precisa para participar das licitações. E ainda um sentimento de pequenez dos empresários respondentes, diante dos concorrentes que participam das vendas para a administração pública. / The Brazil faces the challenge of creating more jobs and increase the generation of income. The development of small businesses is fundamental condition for which these objectives are met, as they are in intensive jobs, and are in all the municipalities of the country. The society through the segment of Micro and Small Enterprises, prepared a proposal, widely discussed, technically elaborate and extensively negotiated. The General Law is the new Statute of the National Micro and Small Enterprises in Porte, set up by Complementary Law No 123 of December 14, 2006, has established general rules to different treatment and favored to be waived and the Micro-ME Companies Small Porte de - EPP under the Powers of the Union, the states, the Federal District and Municipalities. The General Law will prepare Brazil for an effective policy to support the promotion of development, competitiveness and prosperity. It will bring to society and especially for small businesses a number of improvements. The General Law unifies tax and contribution of the Union of states and municipalities, waiver of compliance with certain obligations and labor schemes, facilitates access to credit to the market, gives preference in government purchases for enterprises of small and stimulates technological innovation, among other benefits. The use of government purchasing power means a function to social and economic demand for goods and services of public administration, strengthening the role of the state as promoter of redistributive policies and inducing economic development. The current view of changes in Brazilian legislation on government purchases, the analysis of international experiences, particularly the successful experiences of state governments, support for the viability of using the purchasing power of the state of Roraima as an alternative in the search the sustainable economic development of Micro and Small Enterprises. Using data on government purchases of the State of Roraima, we found that there is no policy of incentives for the purchases to be made locally. Few MEPs participate in sales to public bodies. As for the internal dynamics of government purchases, it was found that there is no knowledge ignorance by public managers on the importance and the role of the MEPs in the exercise of the state economy. Unpreparedness of entrepreneurs on "Public Procurement" and that the companies need to participate in bidding. And yet a sense of small entrepreneurs of respondents, ahead of competitors that participate in sales to the government.

O Brasil enfrenta o desafio de criar mais emprego e ampliar a geração de renda. O desenvolvimento dos pequenos negócios é condição fundamental para que esses objetivos sejam atendidos, pois são intensivos em postos de trabalho e estão em todos os municípios do país. A sociedade por meio do segmento das Micro e Pequenas Empresas prepararam uma proposta, amplamente discutida, tecnicamente elaborada e longamente negociada. A Lei Geral é o novo Estatuto Nacional das Micro Empresas e das Empresas de Pequeno Porte, Instituído pela Lei Complementar nº 123, de 14 de dezembro de 2006, vem estabelecer normas gerais relativas ao tratamento diferenciado e favorecido a ser dispensado às Microempresas - ME e Empresas de Pequeno Porte - EPP no âmbito dos Poderes da União, dos Estados, do Distrito Federal e dos Municípios. Esta Lei vai preparar o Brasil para uma política efetiva de apoio promoção do desenvolvimento, da competitividade e prosperidade. Unifica impostos e contribuição da União, de Estados e Municípios, dispensa o cumprimento de certas obrigações trabalhistas e previdenciárias, facilita o acesso ao crédito ao mercado, confere preferência nas compras públicas para as empresas de pequeno porte e estimula a inovação tecnológica, entre outros benefícios. A utilização do poder de compra governamental significa dar uma função econômica e social à demanda por bens e serviços da administração pública, potencializando o papel do estado como promotor de políticas redistributivas e indutor do desenvolvimento econômico. A atual perspectiva de alterações na legislação brasileira sobre compras governamentais, as análises das experiências internacionais e, principalmente, das experiências bem sucedidas de governos estaduais, corroboram para a viabilidade de se utilizar o poder de compra do Estado de Roraima como um instrumento alternativo na busca pelo desenvolvimento econômico sustentável das Micro e Pequenas Empresas. Através dos dados sobre as compras governamentais do Estado de Roraima, verificou-se que não existe uma política de incentivos para que as compras sejam feitas localmente. Poucas MPE‟s participam da vendas para órgãos públicos. Quanto à dinâmica interna das compras governamentais, apurou-se um elevado desconhecimento por parte dos gestores públicos sobre a importância e o papel que às MPE‟s exercem na economia do estado. Despreparo dos empresários sobre o tema “Compras Públicas” e o que a empresa precisa para participar das licitações. E ainda um sentimento de pequenez dos empresários respondentes, diante dos concorrentes que participam das vendas para a administração pública. / The Brazil faces the challenge of creating more jobs and increase the generation of income. The development of small businesses is fundamental condition for which these objectives are met, as they are in intensive jobs, and are in all the municipalities of the country. The society through the segment of Micro and Small Enterprises, prepared a proposal, widely discussed, technically elaborate and extensively negotiated. The General Law is the new Statute of the National Micro and Small Enterprises in Porte, set up by Complementary Law No 123 of December 14, 2006, has established general rules to different treatment and favored to be waived and the Micro-ME Companies Small Porte de - EPP under the Powers of the Union, the states, the Federal District and Municipalities. The General Law will prepare Brazil for an effective policy to support the promotion of development, competitiveness and prosperity. It will bring to society and especially for small businesses a number of improvements. The General Law unifies tax and contribution of the Union of states and municipalities, waiver of compliance with certain obligations and labor schemes, facilitates access to credit to the market, gives preference in government purchases for enterprises of small and stimulates technological innovation, among other benefits. The use of government purchasing power means a function to social and economic demand for goods and services of public administration, strengthening the role of the state as promoter of redistributive policies and inducing economic development. The current view of changes in Brazilian legislation on government purchases, the analysis of international experiences, particularly the successful experiences of state governments, support for the viability of using the purchasing power of the state of Roraima as an alternative in the search the sustainable economic development of Micro and Small Enterprises. Using data on government purchases of the State of Roraima, we found that there is no policy of incentives for the purchases to be made locally. Few MEPs participate in sales to public bodies. As for the internal dynamics of government purchases, it was found that there is no knowledge ignorance by public managers on the importance and the role of the MEPs in the exercise of the state economy. Unpreparedness of entrepreneurs on "Public Procurement" and that the companies need to participate in bidding. And yet a sense of small entrepreneurs of respondents, ahead of competitors that participate in sales to the government.

O Brasil enfrenta o desafio de criar mais emprego e ampliar a geração de renda. O desenvolvimento dos pequenos negócios é condição fundamental para que esses objetivos sejam atendidos, pois são intensivos em postos de trabalho e estão em todos os municípios do país. A sociedade por meio do segmento das Micro e Pequenas Empresas prepararam uma proposta, amplamente discutida, tecnicamente elaborada e longamente negociada. A Lei Geral é o novo Estatuto Nacional das Micro Empresas e das Empresas de Pequeno Porte, Instituído pela Lei Complementar nº 123, de 14 de dezembro de 2006, vem estabelecer normas gerais relativas ao tratamento diferenciado e favorecido a ser dispensado às Microempresas - ME e Empresas de Pequeno Porte - EPP no âmbito dos Poderes da União, dos Estados, do Distrito Federal e dos Municípios. Esta Lei vai preparar o Brasil para uma política efetiva de apoio promoção do desenvolvimento, da competitividade e prosperidade. Unifica impostos e contribuição da União, de Estados e Municípios, dispensa o cumprimento de certas obrigações trabalhistas e previdenciárias, facilita o acesso ao crédito ao mercado, confere preferência nas compras públicas para as empresas de pequeno porte e estimula a inovação tecnológica, entre outros benefícios. A utilização do poder de compra governamental significa dar uma função econômica e social à demanda por bens e serviços da administração pública, potencializando o papel do estado como promotor de políticas redistributivas e indutor do desenvolvimento econômico. A atual perspectiva de alterações na legislação brasileira sobre compras governamentais, as análises das experiências internacionais e, principalmente, das experiências bem sucedidas de governos estaduais, corroboram para a viabilidade de se utilizar o poder de compra do Estado de Roraima como um instrumento alternativo na busca pelo desenvolvimento econômico sustentável das Micro e Pequenas Empresas. Através dos dados sobre as compras governamentais do Estado de Roraima, verificou-se que não existe uma política de incentivos para que as compras sejam feitas localmente. Poucas MPE‟s participam da vendas para órgãos públicos. Quanto à dinâmica interna das compras governamentais, apurou-se um elevado desconhecimento por parte dos gestores públicos sobre a importância e o papel que às MPE‟s exercem na economia do estado. Despreparo dos empresários sobre o tema “Compras Públicas” e o que a empresa precisa para participar das licitações. E ainda um sentimento de pequenez dos empresários respondentes, diante dos concorrentes que participam das vendas para a administração pública. / The Brazil faces the challenge of creating more jobs and increase the generation of income. The development of small businesses is fundamental condition for which these objectives are met, as they are in intensive jobs, and are in all the municipalities of the country. The society through the segment of Micro and Small Enterprises, prepared a proposal, widely discussed, technically elaborate and extensively negotiated. The General Law is the new Statute of the National Micro and Small Enterprises in Porte, set up by Complementary Law No 123 of December 14, 2006, has established general rules to different treatment and favored to be waived and the Micro-ME Companies Small Porte de - EPP under the Powers of the Union, the states, the Federal District and Municipalities. The General Law will prepare Brazil for an effective policy to support the promotion of development, competitiveness and prosperity. It will bring to society and especially for small businesses a number of improvements. The General Law unifies tax and contribution of the Union of states and municipalities, waiver of compliance with certain obligations and labor schemes, facilitates access to credit to the market, gives preference in government purchases for enterprises of small and stimulates technological innovation, among other benefits. The use of government purchasing power means a function to social and economic demand for goods and services of public administration, strengthening the role of the state as promoter of redistributive policies and inducing economic development. The current view of changes in Brazilian legislation on government purchases, the analysis of international experiences, particularly the successful experiences of state governments, support for the viability of using the purchasing power of the state of Roraima as an alternative in the search the sustainable economic development of Micro and Small Enterprises. Using data on government purchases of the State of Roraima, we found that there is no policy of incentives for the purchases to be made locally. Few MEPs participate in sales to public bodies. As for the internal dynamics of government purchases, it was found that there is no knowledge ignorance by public managers on the importance and the role of the MEPs in the exercise of the state economy. Unpreparedness of entrepreneurs on "Public Procurement" and that the companies need to participate in bidding. And yet a sense of small entrepreneurs of respondents, ahead of competitors that participate in sales to the government.

A expansão da cidade de Nampula produz uma realidade a partir da qual se pode construir um entendimento sobre as tendências da urbanização em Moçambique. A reflexão apresentada expõe a urbanização em Moçambique como momento da ocidentalização e como processo que produz uma realidade urbana específica que contempla a ruralidade; especificidade explicada a partir das contradições produzidas pela: ocidentalização que procura produzir um espaço que reproduz o modo de vida determinado pela industrialização e; pela persistência do modo de vida, derivado das sociedades africanas pré-coloniais, cuja reprodução apóia-se sobre o sistema de linhagem. A coexistência dos dois modos de vida é organizada e controlada pelo Estado centralizador num movimento de reprodução da sua hegemonia sobre o espaço. O resultado é um espaço diferencial produto da urbanização desigual. Nesse contexto, a paisagem da cidade de Nampula revela as desigualdades entre áreas onde o espaço construído tem características das cidades ocidentais concebidas durante a colonização portuguesa e aquelas áreas onde a urbanidade é incipiente pela ausência ou deficiência de serviços e infra-estruturas urbanos. A explicação da urbanização desigual passa pelo entendimento da contradição transformação/persistência dos conteúdos do urbano. A especificidade do urbano em Nampula ainda é explicada pela simultaneidade de diferentes lógicas das relações sociais monetarizadas (capitalista); centrada na solidariedade e integração comunitária (do grupo domiciliar) e; da reprodução das elites no poder (do Estado). Essas lógicas determinam a coexistência de diferentes modos de acesso à habitação e ao solo urbano e, através das desigualdades de renda, produzem um espaço urbano diferencial. / The expansion of Nampula city produces a reality from which it is possible to construct an understanding about the urbanization tendencies in Mozambique. The reflection presented exposes the urbanization in Mozambique as a moment of westernization as well as a process that produces a specific urban reality which contemplates the rural life; specificity explained from the contradictions produced by: the westernization that seeks to produce a space which reproduces the life style determined by the process of industrialization and; the persistency of the life style derived from pre-colonial African societies reproduction of which is based upon the lineage system. The coexistence of the two kinds of life style is organized and controlled by centralized State into a movement of its reproduction hegemony upon space. The result is a differential space as a product of unequal urbanization. In that context the landscape of Nampula city reveals the inequalities between areas where the constructed space has western cities shape conceived during the Portuguese colonization and that areas where the urbanity is incipient by the absence or deficiency of urban services and infrastructures. The explanation of the unequal urbanization passes through the understanding of the contradiction transformation/persistency of the urban contents. The specificity of the urban (reality) in Nampula is still explained by the simultaneity of different logics of the social relations mediated by money (capitalist); centred in communitarian solidarity and integration (of the domicile group) and; of the reproduction of the elite on the power (of State). Those logics determine the coexistence of different access ways to the habitation and urban land and, through the rent inequalities they reproduce a differential urban space.

Bakgrund: Kvinnan har historiskt sett alltid varit underordnad mannen, vilket har haft en stor påverkan på kvinnans roll i samhället samt inom hälso- och sjukvården, vilket än idag påverkar den kvinnliga patienten. Genusbias kan leda till medicinskt relevanta skillnader och ojämlikt bemötande för den kvinnliga patienten. I Sverige finns lagar, riktlinjer och konventioner för att nå visionen om jämställd vård och främja hälsa.Syfte: Syftet var att belysa kvinnliga patienters upplevelser av genusbias inom svensk hälso- och sjukvård.Metod: En litteraturstudie med induktiv ansats genomfördes. Tio vetenskapliga artiklar valdes ut från två olika databaser och artiklarna granskades flertalet gånger och analysen resulterade i fyra teman.Resultat: Fyra kategorier identifierades om kvinnans upplevelser av genusbias. “upplevelsen av okunskap hos vårdgivare”, “att inte bli lyssnad på”, ”att behandlas annorlunda” samt “upplevelsen av en ojämlik vård”.Konklusion: Genusbias förekommer inom hälso- och sjukvården och kan påverka den kvinnliga patienten negativt vilket kan leda till sämre ochojämlik vård för kvinnor. Kommunikationen är av betydelse i omvårdnadsrelationen och bristande kommunikation kan skapa barriärer medan en god kommunikation leder till ökad trygghet och tillit hos den kvinnliga patienten. / Background: Historically, women have always been subordinated to men, which has had a significant impact on women’s roles in both society and within healthcare, still affecting the female patient as of today. Gender bias can lead to medically relevant differences and unequal treatment for female patient. In Sweden, there are laws, guidelines and conventions aimed at achieving the vision of gender-equal care and promoting health.Aim: The aim was to illuminate female patient’s experiences of gender bias in Swedish healthcare.Method: A literature review with an inductive approach was performed. Ten scientific articles were selected from two different databases and the articles were reviewed multiple times, resulting in four categories.Result: Four categories were identified regarding women’s experiences of gender bias:” the perception of insufficient knowledge from healthcare providers”, “not being listened to”, “being treated differently” and “the perception of unequal care”.Conclusion: Gender bias exists in healthcare and can negatively impact female patients, which can lead to poorer and unequal care for woman.Communication is crucial in the nurse-patient relationship and poor communication can create barriers, while good communication enhances the trust and confidence of female patients