As coberturas de hidroxiapatita (HAp) são utilizadas para aumentar a osteointegração em implantes de titânio (Ti), devido à sua capacidade de promover a biomineralização para corrigir defeitos esqueléticos e craniofaciais. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a influência dos revestimentos sobre culturas primárias de osteoblastos. Na primeira fase de estudos, desenvolvemos uma nova abordagem de revestimento baseada em filmes Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) de dihexadecilfosfato (DHP) e ácido octadecilfosfônico (OPA) depositados em discos Ti, e crescimento subsequente de cristais de HAp. Analisamos a viabilidade dos osteoblastos, a atividade da fosfatase alcalina (ALP) e a formação da matriz mineralizada por métodos colorimétricos e a morfologia das culturas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia confocal. Os resultados revelaram que o revestimento DHP/HAp aumentou a viabilidade dos osteoblastos até 150% em comparação com o controle em todos os dias testados. O revestimento OPA/HAp promoveu a maior viabilidade ao 14 dias (190%). A atividade de ALP foi aumentada apenas pelo revestimento de DHP/HAp ao 14º dia em comparação com o controle e Ti limpo. A microscopia eletrônica de varredura e as microfotografias confocais revelaram diferenças morfológicas entre os osteoblastos cultivados em ambos os revestimentos, aumentando o seu número e o espalhamento. O revestimento de DHP/HAp aumentou a produção de nódulos biomineralizados. O ensaio de biomineralização pela técnica do Vermelho de Alizarina mostrou que o revestimento de OPA/HAp possuía uma concentração de cálcio (Ca2+) 1,88 vezes superior à cobertura de DHP/HAp. Uma vez que a literatura relata que o Ca2+ pode estimular ou inibir a atividade da ALP e, consequentemente, o processo de biomineralização, as diferenças no comportamento desses dois revestimentos podem estar relacionadas às diferenças de concentração de superfície de Ca2+. O bom desempenho do revestimento de DHP/HAp pode estar relacionado às características da composição química, adicionada à técnica de deposição LB. Na segunda fase da pesquisa, as monocamadas de Langmuir de DHP e dipalmitoil fosfatidilcolina (DPPC) foram testadas e utilizadas para incorporar o paratormônio 1-34 (PTH 1-34) (DHP/Ca+PTH e DPPC/Ca+PTH, respectivamente). Também foram testadas as ações dos revestimentos DHP/HAp com PTH em solução (DHP/HAp+PTH S) e gotejado (DHP/HAp+PTH G) em culturas de osteoblastos. Um potencial zeta negativo em pH 7,4 foi encontrado (-14,9 mV) para o PTH 1-34. A isoterma de DPPC mostrou um aumento da área mínima ocupada por molécula lipídica após a injeção de PTH na subfase de água (50 ?L de solução 0,5 mg/mL) em 10,97 Å2, o que pode ser devido à inserção de PTH neste filme. A área mínima de DHP foi alterada em 2,3 Å2, o que não é estatisticamente significativo. A análise de QCM mostrou um depósito de 72,5 ng de PTH em filme de DPPC e 29,3 ng de PTH em filme de DHP para cada 25 ?g de PTH injetado na cuba de Langmuir. A viabilidade celular e a formação da matriz mineralizada de culturas de osteoblastos crescidas em DHP/Ca+PTH e revestimentos DPPC/Ca+PTH diminuíram quando comparadas com Ti limpo. Os revestimentos DHP/HAp+PTH S e DHP/HAp+PTH G mostraram ser tão eficientes quanto o Ti DHP/HAp para estimular o processo de biomineralização. Mas a cobertura de DHP/HAp+PTH G aumentou a viabilidade dos osteoblastos e a formação de matriz mineralizada quando comparada com Ti DHP/HAp. Esta é uma cobertura inovadora que abre precedentes para o uso da técnica de gotejamento em HAp para outros hormônios e drogas que agem sobre o tecido ósseo. / Due to their ability to promote biomineralization, Hydroxyapatite (HAp) coatings are used to increase the osteointegration in titanium (Ti) implants, in order to correct skeletal and craniofacial defects. The objective of the research was to evaluate the influence of the coatings on osteoblasts primary cultures. In the first phase of the research we developed a new coating approach based on Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films of dihexadecyl phosphate (DHP) and octadecylphosphonic acid (OPA) deposited on Ti discs and subsequent growth of HAp crystals. We analyzed the osteoblast viability, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and mineralized matrix formation by colorimetric methods, and the morphology of the cultures by scanning electron microscopy and confocal micrographies. The results revealed that the DHP/HAp coating increased osteoblast viability up to 150% compared to the control at all days tested. The OPA/HAp coating promoted the highest viability on the 14th day (190%). The ALP activity was enhanced only by the DHP/HAp coating on the 14th day compared to control, and clean Ti. To explore the morphology of the cells, the scanning electron microscopy and confocal micrographies were obtained, and revealed morphological differences between osteoblasts grown on both coated Ti compared to clean Ti. Both coatings increased the number and spreading of osteoblasts, while the DHP/HAp coating enhanced the production of biomineralized nodules. The Alizarin Red assay showed that OPA/HAp coating has 1.88 times higher calcium (Ca2+) concentration than DHP/HAp. The same test confirmed the increase of mineralization only by DHP/HAp coating compared to clean Ti. Since literature reports that Ca2+ can stimulate or inhibit the ALP activity and consequently, the biomineralization process, the differences on the behavior of these two coatings could be related to the Ca2+ surface concentration differences. The good performance of the DHP/HAp coating can be explained due to the characteristics of the chemical composition, added to the LB deposition technique. In the second phase of the research, Langmuir monolayers of DHP and dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) was tested and used to incorporate 1-34 parathyroid hormone (PTH 1-34) (DHP/Ca+PTH, and DPPC/Ca+PTH, respectively). DHP/HAp coatings with PTH in solution (DHP/HAp+PTH S), and dropped (DHP/HAp+PTH G) also were tested on osteoblasts cultures. A negative zeta-potential at pH 7.4 was found (-14.9 mV) to PTH 1-34. The Langmuir isotherm of DPPC showed an increase of the minimum area occupied per lipid molecule after the PTH injection into the water subphase (50 ?L of 0.5 mg/mL solution) by 10.97 Å2, which could be due to the insertion of PTH in this film. The DHP minimum area changed by 2.3 Å2, which is not statistically significant. The QCM analysis showed the deposit of 72.5 ng of PTH on DPPC film, and 29.3 ng of PTH on DHP film for each 25 ?g of PTH injected into the Langmuir trough. The cell viability and matrix mineralization of osteoblasts cultures grown on DHP/Ca+PTH, and DPPC/Ca+PTH coatings decreased when compared to clean Ti. DHP/HAp+PTH S and DHP/HAp+PTH G coatings proved to be as efficient as Ti DHP/HAp to stimulate the biomineralization process. But DHP/HAp+PTH G increased the osteoblast viabilitiy and formation of mineralized matrix when compared to Ti DHP/HAp. This is an innovative coating that sets the precedent for the use of the drip technique on HAp for other hormones and drugs that act on bone tissue.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do condicionamento de superfície de uma vitrocerâmica 100% cristalina e altamente bioativa (Biosilicato®) e de seus produtos de dissolução iônica sobre diferentes parâmetros do desenvolvimento do fenótipo osteogênico in vitro. Previamente ao plaqueamento de células osteogênicas de calvárias de ratos, discos de Biosilicato® foram condicionados, por 3 dias, em meio de cultura suplementado, com ou sem soro fetal bovino a 10%. Células osteogênicas expostas aos produtos de dissolução iônica do Biosilicato® foram também cultivadas sobre lamínulas de vidro bioinerte. Discos de Biosilicato e lamínulas de vidro foram utilizados como controles. Os resultados mostraram que o tratamento de superfície de Biosilicato® aumenta expressivamente a concentração de silício e cálcio no meio de cultura. Em 1, 3 e 7 dias, foram determinados os maiores valores de viabilidade celular em superfícies de Biosilicato® condicionado, enquanto que entre os grupos de lamínulas de vidro, observou-se menor viabilidade em culturas expostas aos produtos de dissolução iônica do Biosilicato®. Em 3 dias, células sobre todas as superfícies de Biosilicato® apresentavam-se menos espraiadas quando comparadas àquelas sobre lamínulas de vidro; neste período, a topografia das superfícies dos grupos de Biosilicato® caracterizava-se por rede de cavidades na submicro e nanoescala, enquanto que a lamínula apresentava superfície plana. Alterações no padrão de marcação das proteínas citoesqueléticas actina, vimentina, tubulina e vinculina, da subunidade de integrina α5 e da fibronectina eram observadas apenas em células crescidas sobre as superfícies de Biosilicato®. Ao final da fase proliferativa (7 dias), foram observados maiores níveis relativos de expressão de RNA mensageiro para Runx2, sialoproteína óssea (BSP) e fosfatase alcalina (ALP) em culturas crescidas sobre superfícies condicionadas de Biosilicato®; a exposição aos produtos de dissolução iônica aumentou a expressão de Runx2 e ALP nos grupos de lamínula de vidro. Em 14 dias, culturas sobre Biosilicato® condicionado em meio de cultura com soro exibiam áreas mais extensas de mineralização. Os resultados deste estudo mostraram que o condicionamento de superfícies de Biosilicato® previamente ao plaqueamento celular favorece aspectos da interação célula-substrato, promovendo maior viabilidade celular e aumentando e/ou acelerando o desenvolvimento do fenótipo osteogênico in vitro. A exposição aos produtos de dissolução iônica do Biosilicato® inibe a progressão de culturas osteogênicas sobre lamínulas de vidro bioinerte, apesar de aumentar a expressão de marcadores osteoblásticos. / The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of surface conditioning of a highly bioactive, fully crystalline glass-ceramic in the Na2O-CaO-SiO2-P2O5 system (Biosilicate®) and of its ionic dissolution products on key parameters of the development of the osteogenic phenotype in vitro. Rat calvaria-derived osteogenic cells were plated on Biosilicate® discs that were pre-conditioned either with supplemented culture medium or serum-free medium for 3 days. In addition, osteogenic cells grown on bioinert glass coverslips were exposed to the ionic dissolution products of the Biosilicate®. The results showed that the supplemented culture medium used for the Biosilicate® surface conditioning exhibited a high concentration silicium and calcium. At 1, 3, and 7 days, cell viability was significantly higher for the conditioned Biosilicate® sufaces, whereas reduced cell viability was observed for cultures grown on glass coverslips and exposed to the ionic dissolution products of Biosilicate®. At day 3, cells grown on Biosilicate® groups were less spread compared with those on glass coverslips. At the same time point, whereas the surface topography of glass coverslips was smooth, Biosilicate® discs exhibited a network of submicron and nanoscale pits. Changes in the labeling pattern of the cytoskeleton proteins actin, vimentin, tubulin and vinculin, and of α5 integrin and fibronectin were only observed for cells grown on Biosilicate® surfaces. At the end of the proliferative phase (day 7), expression levels of Runx2, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and bone sialoprotein (BSP) mRNAs were significantly higher for cultures grown on conditioned Biosilicate® surfaces; the exposure of cells to the ionic dissolution products increased Runx2 and ALP mRNA levels. At day 14, significantly more extensive areas of matrix mineralization were detected for cultures grown on Biosilicate® discs that were pre-conditioned with supplemented culture medium. The results showed that the conditioning of Biosilicate® surfaces with culture medium prior to cell plating supports key aspects of cell-substrate interactions, increasing and/or accelerating expression of the osteoblastic cell phenotype. Furthermore, the exposure of cells to the ionic dissolution products of Biosilicate® inhibits the progression of osteogenic cell cultures on bioinert glass coverslips, despite its positive effect on expression of osteoblastic markers.

As BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) são membros da superfamília de proteínas TGF-β (Transforming Growth Factor β ), regulam o crescimento e diferenciação de vários tipos celulares em diversos tecidos, e algumas delas desempenham um papel crítico na diferenciação de células de origem mesenquimal em osteoblastos. Particularmente, rhBMP2 e rhBMP7, promovem osteoindução tanto \"in vitro\" como \"in vivo,\" sendo, ambas as proteínas utilizadas terapeuticamente em Ortopedia/Odontologia para reparo ósseo. A expressão diferencial de genes durante a osteodiferenciação de células C2C12 induzida por rhBMP2 e rhBMP7, foi analisada através de microarranjos de DNA, selecionando 31 genes, dos quais 24 foram validados por qPCR, 13 dos quais são relacionados à transcrição, quatro associados a algumas vias de sinalização celular e sete associados à matriz extracelular. Análise funcional destes genes permitirá conhecer, com maiores detalhes, os eventos moleculares que ocorrem durante a diferenciação osteoblástica de células C2C12 induzida por rhBMPs. Em paralelo, foi perseguida a super-expressão de rhBMP2 e rhBMP7 em células HEK293T, demonstrando-se a atividade de rhBMP7, induzindo osteodiferenciação \"in vitro\" e formação de osso \"in vivo\", demonstrando a viabilidade do objetivo de se produzir estas proteínas para futura aplicação como biofármacos no Brasil. / The BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) are members of the TGF-β (Transforming Growth Factor β) superfamily of proteins, regulate growth and differentiation of various cell types in various tissues, and some play a critical role in differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts. Particularly, rhBMP2 and rhBMP7, promote osteoinduction \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\" and both proteins are used therapeutically in Orthopedics and Dentistry. The differential expression of genes during osteodifferentiation induced by rhBMP2 and rhBMP7 in C2C12 cells was analyzed through DNA microarrays, allowing the selection of 31 genes, of which 24 were validated by qPCR, 13 of which are related to transcription, four associated with cell signaling pathways and seven are associated with the extracellular matrix. Subsequent functional analysis of these genes should reveal more details on the molecular events which take place during C2C12 cells osteoblastic differentiation induced by rhBMPs In paralel, rhBMPs 2 and 7 were overexpressed in HEK293T cells and BMP7 activity to induce osteodifferentiation \"in vitro\" and bone formation \"in vivo\" was demonstrated, reinforcing the viability of our objective to produce these proteins for future application as biopharmaceuticals in Brazil.

Alors que les phases de résorption et de couplage du cycle de remodelage de l’os sont de plus en plus connues et ont permis le développement d’agents thérapeutiques, la phase d’activation reste peu étudiée. L’objectif global de ce travail est d’analyser les évènements cellulaires mis en jeu au cours de la phase d’activation du remodelage de l’os. Les objectifs spécifiques ont été 1- de caractériser le trafic cellulaire dans le périoste au cours de la phase d’activation du remodelage et 2- d’étudier le rôle d’une enzyme, la nicotinamide phosphorybosyl transférase (Nampt) dans ces évènements. Dans notre premier travail, nous montrons dans un modèle de remodelage synchronisé de l’os alvéolaire, une expression précoce de ICAM-1 par les vaisseaux qui serait impliquée dans la diapédèse observée de monocyte-macrophages CD68+. Ces cellules migreraient à travers le compartiment non ostéogénique puis ostéogénique, guidées par des cellules de type fibroblastes puis des OB exprimant VCAM-1. Le nombre des cellules RANKL+ dans le compartiment ostéogénique augmente graduellement lors de la phase d’activation. En parallèle, l’expression de la sémaphorine 3a, qui inhibe l’ostéoclastogénèse, diminue chez les OB et les ostéocytes superficiels. Dans notre second travail, nous trouvons que l’expression basale de la Nampt est accrue dans les cellules de la couche ostéogénique au cours de la phase d’activation du remodelage. Inhiber son activité via le FK866 permet de diminuer l’ostéoclastogenèse indiquant que la Nampt serait impliquée dans le recrutement et l’activité des OC. En culture primaire d’ostéoblastes murins, nous montrons que son expression augmente au cours de la différentiation et qu’elle régule l’expression de marqueurs tardifs de différentiation. L’ensemble de ces données montre une série d’évènements coordonnés qui servent au recrutement des précurseurs ostéoclastiques et à leur migration vers la surface osseuse à résorber. La Nampt semble jouer un rôle dans l’acquisition des ostéoblastes d’un phénotype favorable à ces évènements. / Resorption and inversion phases of bone remodeling are well understood, which have permitted the development of therapeutic agents. At the opposite, activation phase remains poorly characterized. This work aims to analyze cellular events involved in the activation phase of bone remodeling. Specific goals were: 1- To characterize cellular traffic in the periosteum during the activation phase of bone remodeling. 2- To study the role of NicotinAMide Phosphorybosyl Transférase (NAMPT) enzyme during activation. In the first study, we show an early expression of ICAM-1 by vessels in a synchronized alveolar-bone-remodeling model. The ICAM-1 expression may be involved in the observed diapedesis of monocytes – macrophages CD68+. These cells migrate through non osteogenic and osteogenic layers, steered by fibroblast-like cells and then by VCAM+ osteoblasts (OB). The number of RANKL+ cells in osteogenic layer gradually increases during the activation phase. Simultaneously, the expression of semaphorine 3a inhibiting osteoclastogenesis, decreases in osteoblasts and superficial osteocytes. In the second study, we show that basal expression of NAMPT increases in osteogenic-layer cells during the activation phase of bone remodeling. Inhibiting its activity with FK866 enhables to decrease osteoclastogenesis, suggesting an involvement of NAMPT in osteoclast recruitment and activity. In primary culture of murine OB, we show that NAMPT expression increases during differentiation. It also regulates OB late-differentiation markers expression. All these data show a series of coordinated events which serve in osteoclasts precursors’ recruitment and migration towards bone surface. NAMPT seems to contribute to acquiring an OB phenotype more favorable to OC recruitment.

Dental and orthopaedic implants are currently the solutions of choice for teeth and joint replacements with success rates continually improving, but they still have undesirable failure rates in patients who are compromised by disease or age, and who in many cases are the ones most in need. The success of titanium (Ti) implants depends on their ability to osseointegrate with the surrounding bone and this, in turn, is greatly dependent on the surface characteristics of the device. Advancements in surface analysis and surface modification techniques have improved the biological performance of metallic implants by mimicking the hierarchical structure of bone associated with regular bone remodeling. In this process, damaged bone is resorbed by osteoclasts, which produce resorption lacunae containing high microroughness generated after mineral dissolution under the ruffled border, as well as superimposed nanoscale features created by the collagen fibers left at the surface. Indeed, increasing Ti surface roughness at the micro and sub-microscale level has been shown to increase osteoblast differentiation in vitro, increase bone-to-implant contact in vivo, and accelerate healing times clinically. Recently, the clinical application of surface nanomodification of implants has been evaluated. Still, most clinically-available devices remain smooth at the nanoscale and fundamental questions remain to be elucidated about the effect of nanoroughness on the initial response of osteoblast lineage cells. Another property that could be used to control osteoblast development and the process of osseointegration is the electrical surface charge of implants. The presence of endogenous electrical signals in bone has been implicated in the processes of bone remodeling and repair. The existence of these native signals has prompted the use of external electrical stimulation to enhance bone growth in cases of fractures with delayed union or nonunion, with several in vitro and in vivo reports confirming its beneficial effects on bone formation. However, the use of electrical stimulation on Ti implants to enhance osseointegration is less understood, in part because of the lack of in vitro models that truly represent the in vivo environment. In addition, an aspect that has not been thoroughly examined is the electrical implication of implant corrosion and its effect on the surrounding tissue. Implants are exposed to extreme conditions in the body such as high pH during inflammation, and cyclic loads. These circumstances may lead to corrosion events that generate large electrochemical currents and potentials, and may cause abnormal cell and tissue responses that could be partly responsible for complications such as aseptic loosening of implants. Consequently, Ti implants with tailored surface characteristics such as nanotopography and electrical polarization, could promote bone healing and osseointegration to ensure successful outcomes for patients by mimicking the biological environment of bone without the use of systemic drugs. The objective of this thesis is to understand how surface nanostructural and electrical characteristics of Ti and Ti alloy surfaces may affect osteoblast lineage cell response in vitro for normal tissue regeneration and repair. Our central hypothesis is that combined micro/nanostructured surfaces, as well as direct stimulation of Ti surfaces with fixed direct current (DC) potentials, can enhance osteoblast differentiation.

Cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix through cell-surface integrin receptors is essential to development, wound healing, and tissue remodeling and therefore represents a central theme in the design of bioactive surfaces that successfully interface with the body. This is especially significant in the areas of integrative implant coatings since adhesion triggers signals that regulate cell cycle progression and differentiation in multiple cellular systems. The interactions of osteoblasts with their surrounding extracellular matrix are essential for skeletal development and homeostasis and the maintenance of the mature osteoblastic phenotype. Our objective was to engineer integrin-specific bioactive surfaces that support osteoblastic differentiation and promote osseointegration by mimicking these interactions. We target two specific integrins essential to osteoblast differentiation the type I collagen receptor alpha2beta1 and the fibronectin receptor alpha5beta1. The central hypothesis of this project was that the controlled presentation of type I collagen and fibronectin binding domains onto well-defined substrates would result in integrin-specific bioadhesive surfaces that support osteoblastic differentiation, matrix mineralization, and osseointegration. We have demonstrated that these biomimetic peptides enhance bone formation and mechanical osseointegration on titanium implants in a rat tibia cortical bone model. We have also shown that the presentation of multiple integrin-binding ligands synergize to enhance intracellular signaling and proliferation. Finally, we demonstrate the advantage of the short biomimetic peptides over the native ECM proteins. This research is significant because it addresses current orthopaedic implant limitations by specifically targeting cellular responses that are critical to osteoblastic differentiation and bone formation. This biomolecular approach provides a versatile and robust strategy for developing bioactive surfaces that enhance bone repair and osseointegration of orthopaedic implants.

Tissue engineering has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional orthopaedic grafting therapies. The general paradigm for this approach, in which phenotype-specific cells and/or bioactive growth factors are integrated into polymeric matrices, has been successfully applied in recent years toward the development of bone, ligament, and cartilage tissues in vitro and in vivo. Despite these advances, an optimal cell source for skeletal tissue repair and regeneration has not been identified. Furthermore, the lack of robust, functional orthopaedic tissue interfaces, such as the bone-ligament enthesis, severely limits the integration and biological performance of engineered tissue substitutes. This works aims to address these limitations by spatially controlling the genetic modification and differentiation of fibroblasts into a mineralizing osteoblastic phenotype within three-dimensional polymeric matrices. The overall objective of this project was to investigate transcription factor-based gene therapy strategies for the differentiation of fibroblasts into a mineralizing cell source for orthopaedic tissue engineering applications. Our central hypothesis was that fibroblasts genetically engineered to express Runx2 via conventional and biomaterial-mediated ex vivo gene transfer approaches will differentiate into a mineralizing osteoblastic phenotype. We have demonstrated that a combination of retroviral Runx2 overexpression and glucocorticoid hormone treatment synergistically induces osteoblastic differentiation and biological mineral deposition in primary dermal fibroblasts cultured in monolayer. We report for the first time that glucocorticoids induce osteoblastic differentiation in this model system by modulating the phosphorylation state of a negative regulatory serine residue (Ser125) on Runx2 through an MKP-1-dependent mechanism. Furthermore, we utilized these Runx2-genetically engineered fibroblasts to create mineralized templates for bone repair in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we engineered a heterogeneous bone-soft tissue interface with a novel biomaterial-mediated gene transfer approach. Overall, these results are significant toward the ultimate goal of regenerating complex, higher-order orthopaedic grafting templates which mimic the cellular and microstructural characteristics of native tissue. Cellular therapies based on primary dermal fibroblasts would be particularly beneficial for patients with a compromised ability to recruit progenitors to the sight of injury as result of traumatic injury, radiation treatment, or osteodegenerative disease.

Das RANKL/RANK/OPG-System spielt eine entscheidende Rolle in der Steuerung der Osteoklastendifferenzierung und -aktivierung durch Osteoblasten/ Knochenmarkbindegewebszellen im Rahmen des Knochenremodelings. Osteoblasten/Knochenmarkbindegewebszellen exprimieren RANKL. Dieses hat im Körper zwei Rezeptoren: RANK und OPG. RANKL kann durch Bindung an RANK auf Osteoklasten/Osteoklastenvorläuferzellen in Gegenwart von M-CSF seine osteoklastenstimulierende Wirkung entfalten. Der ebenfalls von Osteoblasten gebildete „decoy“-Rezeptor OPG blockiert als freies Protein durch Bindung an RANKL dessen Interaktion mit RANK und verhindert somit die Osteoklastogenese und Osteoklastenaktivierung. Das RANKL/RANK/OPG-System erfüllt im Körper noch weitere Funktionen im Immunsystem, in der Organentwicklung lymphatischer Gewebe und in der Entwicklung der laktierenden Brustdrüse. Viele Zytokine greifen hemmend oder aktivierend in die Osteoklastogenese ein. Sie können dies zum einen durch die Beeinflussung des RANKL/OPG-Verhältnisses, zum anderen durch direkte Interaktion mit Osteoklasten/Osteoklastenvorläuferzellen tun. Zytokine, die die Osteoklastogenese begünstigen, werden vor allem bei inflammatorischen Prozessen ausgeschüttet. Zusammen mit dem, bei diesen Zuständen von aktivierten T-Zellen produzierten RANKL kann dies längerfristig zu einem Knochenverlust führen, welcher sich im klinischen Bild der Osteoporose äußert. Aus den in der vorliegenden Dissertation durchgeführten Untersuchungen ergeben sich folgende Schlussfolgerungen: 1. Monozyten der Zelllinie RAW 264.7 lassen sich, wie bereits in der Literatur beschrieben, durch Zugabe von M-CSF und RANKL zu osteoklastenähnlichen Zellen differenzieren. 2. Die Osteoklastogenese lässt sich anhand der Veränderung verschiedener osteoklastenspezifischer Parameter charakterisieren. Es zeigt sich bei den mit M-CSF und RANKL stimulierten Monozyten eine erhöhte Transkription von CTR (Calcitoninrezeptor)- und TRAP (tartratresistente saure Phosphatase)-mRNA, eine erhöhte Expression des CTR-Proteins, eine erhöhte TRAP-Aktivität und eine Formierung TRAP-positiver mehrkerniger Riesenzellen, die in diesen Eigenschaften Osteoklasten entsprechen. Die zusätzliche Zugabe von TGF-b1 in Kombination mit M-CSF und RANKL resultiert in einer verstärkten Expression von CTR-mRNA und CTR-Protein. TRAP-mRNA-Expression und TRAP-Aktivität bleiben davon unbeeinflusst. 3. Als funktionelles Merkmal der in vitro differenzierten Osteoklasten können ihre Fähigkeit zur Ausbildung von Aktinringen und die Resorption von mineralisiertem Kollagen nachgewiesen werden. 4. Im Verlauf ihrer Differenzierung sekretieren Osteoblasten unterschiedliche Mengen an OPG. Das Maximum der Synthese liegt bei Tag 11. Freies RANKL lässt sich in Überständen von MC3T3-E1-Osteoblasten nicht nachweisen. 5. Das von Osteoblasten in das Medium abgegebene OPG ist in der Lage, die durch RANKL induzierte Osteoklastogenese von RAW-Monozyten zu hemmen. 6. In Kokulturen von MC3T3-E1-Osteoblasten und RAW-Monozyten kann keine Osteoklastogenese beobachtet werden, wahrscheinlich durch Fehlen der RANKLExprimierung oder zu starke OPG-Sekretion durch Osteoblasten. Besonders in der westlichen Welt mit ihrer hohen Lebenserwartung haben Krankheiten mit Knochenverlust sowie bösartige Neubildungen mit Knochenbefall eine große medizinische Bedeutung. Die Beeinflussung des RANKL/RANK/OPG-Systems bietet eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit zur Entwicklung hochwirksamer und nebenwirkungsarmer Medikamente zur Behandlung dieser Zustände.

Η κατανόηση των φαινομένων που λαμβάνουν χώρα κατά την αλληλεπίδραση κυττάρου βιοϋλικού και η συσχέτιση μηχανικών παραμέτρων του κυττάρου με πολύπλοκες διεργασίες στο εξωκυττάριο (ECM) περιβάλλον οδηγεί το μέλλον στο σχεδιασμό των βιοϋλικών. Σκοπός της διατριβής ήταν η διερεύνηση της προσκόλλησης και των μεταβολών των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων οστεοβλαστών στους αρχικούς χρόνους προσκόλλησης σε υπόστρωμα του βιοπολυμερούς χιτοζάνης. Η προετοιμασία υποστρωμάτων χιτοζάνης έγινε με ομοιοπολική πρόσδεση του βιοπολυμερούς σε επιφάνεια γυαλιού (επιφάνεια ελέγχου). Με φασματοσκοπία φωτοηλεκτρονίων από ακτίνες Χ επιβεβαιώθηκε η μεταβολή της επιφανειακής χημικής σύστασης. Η μέση επιφανειακή τραχύτητα, με χρήση Μικροσκοπίας Ατομικής Δύναμης, βρέθηκε 4 φορές μεγαλύτερη στη χιτοζάνη σε σύγκριση με το γυαλί, ενώ η μέση γωνία διαβροχής ήταν περίπου 3 φορές μεγαλύτερη στη χιτοζάνη. Ο αριθμός και η μέση επιφάνεια εξάπλωσης των προσκολλημένων κυττάρων, προσδιορίστηκαν από φωτογραφίες ηλεκτρονιακού μικροσκοπίου σάρωσης και χρήση λογισμικού ανάλυσης εικόνας. Μέχρι τα 30 λεπτά, ο αριθμός ήταν μεγαλύτερος στη χιτοζάνη, ενώ μετά τα 45 λεπτά, στο γυαλί. Σε όλους τους χρόνους, η μέση επιφάνεια εξάπλωσης ήταν μεγαλύτερη στη χιτοζάνη. Για την ποσοτικοποίηση της προσκόλλησης, χρησιμοποιήθηκε η τεχνική της μικροπιπέττας σε πειράματα αποκόλλησης μεμονωμένων οστεοβλαστών. Υπολογίστηκε η “ώθηση αποκόλλησης”, I, ως το ολοκλήρωμα της εφαρμοζόμενης δύναμης στο χρόνο (I=SFdt) για την πλήρη αποκόλληση ενός κυττάρου και βρέθηκε στατιστικά μεγαλύτερη στη χιτοζάνη σε όλους τους χρόνους. Με την τεχνική Ποσοτικής Αλυσιδωτής Αντίδρασης Πολυμεράσης, η έκφραση των γονιδίων ιντεγκρινών αν, α4, β1 και β3 βρέθηκε σημαντικά αυξημένη στη χιτοζάνη από τα 30 στα 120 λεπτά. Με συνεστιακό μικροσκόπιο σάρωσης, παρατηρήθηκε αυξημένη έκφραση της κινάσης εστιακής προσκόλλησης στη χιτοζάνη στα 30 και στα 120 λεπτά. Τέλος, χρησιμοποιήθηκε η τεχνική της μικροπιπέττας σε πειράματα εφελκυσμού και ερπυσμού των οστεοβλαστών και υπολογίστηκαν οι μεταβολές του μέτρου Young, Ε, και του φαινόμενου ιξώδους, η. Οι μέσες τιμές βρέθηκαν αυξημένες στην πορεία της προσκόλλησης στις δύο επιφάνειες, παρουσιάζοντας υψηλότερες τιμές στη χιτοζάνη. Η παρούσα διατριβή είναι μια ολοκληρωμένη φαινομενολογική προσέγγιση της μηχανικής συμπεριφοράς της οστεοβλάστης κατά την προσκόλληση. Η προσκόλληση στη χιτοζάνη συνοδεύεται από μεταβολές στη μηχανική συμπεριφορά και συνδέεται με κρίσιμες βιοχημικές διεργασίες. / The understanding of the phenomena that take place during cell-biomaterial interaction and the correlation of cell mechanical parameters with complicated processes at the extracellular environment (ECM) is driving the future of biomaterial design. The aim of the present study was the investigation of attachment and of alterations of mechanical properties of osteoblasts during the initial phase of attachment on chitosan biopolymer substrate. The preparation of the chitosan substrates was done with covalent immobilization of the biopolymer on glass surface (control substrate). X-Ray photolelectron spectroscopy confirmed the alteration of the surface chemical composition. Mean surface roughness, as measured by Atomic Force Microscopy, was increased 4-fold compared to glass, while the mean contact angle was found 3 times higher on chitosan substrate. The mean number and spreading area of the attached cells, were determined by Scanning Electron Microscopy images and the use of image processing program. Up to 30 minutes, the number of attached cells was higher on chitosan, while after 45 minutes, it was on glass. At all time points, the mean spreading area was greater on chitosan. To quantify attachment, the micropipette aspiration technique was used at experiments of detachment of individual osteoblasts. The ‘’detachment impulse’’, I, was calculated, as the integral of the applied force at time required (I=SFdt) for complete detachment of one cell, and it was found statistically higher on chitosan at all attachment times. With the quantified Polymerase Chain Reaction, the αν, α4, β1 and β3 gene integrin expression was found significantly increased from 30 to 120 minutes of attachment on chitosan. Using confocal scanning microscopy, higher expression of focal adhesion kinase was observed on chitosan at 30 and 120 minutes of attachment. Additionally, the micropipette aspiration technique was used at stretching and creep experiments so as to calculate the alterations of cell’s Young modulus, E, and apparent viscosity, η. Mean values were increased at the course of spreading for both surfaces, demonstrating greater values on chitosan. The present study is a complete phenomenological approach of the mechanical behavior of osteoblasts during attachment. Attachment on chitosan is accompanied by alterations of the mechanical behavior and is associated with critical biochemical processes.

L’arthrose (OA) est une maladie articulaire dégénérative à l’étiologie complexe et diverse. Les travaux de ces dernières années ont démontré que l’OA est une pathologie affectant tous les tissus de l’articulation incluant le cartilage, la membrane synoviale et l’os sous-chondral. L’OA se traduit par une déstructuration et une perte de fonctionnalité de l’articulation, et est principalement caractérisée par une perte de cartilage articulaire. L’inflammation de la membrane synoviale joue un rôle déterminant dans la progression de l’OA, toutefois elle serait secondaire à la dégradation du cartilage. De plus, l’os sous-chondral est également le siège de nombreuses transformations lors de l’OA. Il est fortement suggéré que ces changements ne correspondent pas seulement à une conséquence, mais pourraient être une cause du développement de l’OA impliquant une communication entre ce tissu et le cartilage. Il est maintenant bien établi que les voies inflammatoires et cataboliques jouent un rôle crucial dans l’OA. C’est pourquoi, nous avons étudié l’implication d’une nouvelle famille de récepteurs membranaires, les PARs, et plus particulièrement le PAR-2 dans les voies physiopathologiques de l’OA. Notre hypothèse est que l’activation de PAR-2 au cours de l’OA est un phénomène majeur du développement/progression de la maladie faisant du récepteur PAR-2 un candidat privilégié pour le développement de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques ciblant non seulement le cartilage mais aussi l’os sous-chondral. Pour cette étude, nous avons travaillé in vitro avec des chondrocytes (Cr) et des ostéoblastes (Ob) OA respectivement du cartilage et de l’os sous-chondral du condyle fémoral humain. Nos résultats ont démontré que PAR-2 était plus exprimé dans les Cr et les Ob OA que dans les cellules normales. Par ailleurs, PAR-2 est régulé positivement par certains facteurs retrouvés au cours de l’OA comme l’IL-1β, le TNF-α et le TGF-β dans les Cr OA, et par l’IL-1β, le TNF-α et la PGE2 dans les Ob OA. De plus, les principaux facteurs cataboliques et inflammatoires, soit la MMP-1, la MMP-13 et la COX-2 sont produits en quantité plus élevée suite à l’activation du récepteur dans le cartilage OA. De même, l’activation de PAR-2 dans les Ob OA conduit à une production accrue de facteurs pro-résorptifs tels que RANKL, l’IL-6, la MMP-1 et la MMP-9, et à l’augmentation de l’activité pro-résorptive de ces cellules. En outre, dans les deux types tissulaires étudiés, l’activation de PAR-2 augmente l’activité de certaines protéines de la famille des MAPKinases comme Erk1/2, p38 et JNK. Finalement, nous avons conclu notre étude en employant un modèle in vivo d’OA induite chez la souris sauvage et déficiente pour le gène PAR-2. Nos résultats ont démontré que l’absence d’expression et de production de PAR-2 influençait le processus inflammatoire et les changements structuraux affectant à la fois le cartilage et l’os sous-chondral, conduisant à un ralentissement du développement de l’OA. Nos travaux de recherche ont donc permis de montrer que le récepteur PAR-2 est un élément majeur du processus OA en agissant sur les voies cataboliques et inflammatoires du cartilage, et sur le remodelage tissulaire de l’os sous-chondral. Mots-clés : Arthrose, chondrocyte, cartilage, ostéoblaste, os sous-chondral, PAR-2, MMPs, COX, ILs, RANKL, résorption osseuse, MAPKinase, catabolisme, inflammation / Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complex degenerative articular disease. Recent studies have shown that OA is a pathology affecting all the tissues of the joint including the cartilage, the synovial membrane and the subchondral bone. OA is regarded as destruction and a loss of functionality of joint, and is mainly characterized by a loss of articular cartilage. The synovial inflammation also plays a key role in the progression of OA; however, it is believed to be secondary to cartilage degradation. In addition, there are also in the subchondral bone numerous changes which occur during the course of the disease. It is strongly suggested that these changes in subchondral bone are not just a consequence but could be a cause of the development of OA, thus involving a cross-talk between this tissue and the cartilage. It is now well established that inflammatory and catabolic pathways play a crucial role during OA. This is why we have engaged the study of the involvement of a new family of membranous receptors, the PARs, and more particularly PAR-2 during the pathophysiological process of OA. Our hypothesis is that PAR-2 activation during OA course is a major phenomenon for the development/progression of the disease, and that PAR-2 seems a suitable candidate for the development of new therapeutic approaches targeting not only the cartilage but also the subchondral bone. Thus, we have performed in vitro studies on OA chondrocyte (Cr) and osteoblasts (Ob) cells issued respectively from human femoral condyle cartilage and subchondral bone. Our results showed that PAR-2 was expressed at a higher level in the OA Cr and Ob compared to normal cells. Moreover, PAR-2 is found to be positively regulated by some factors present during the course of OA, such as IL-1β, TNF-α and TGF-β in the OA Cr, and IL-1β, TNF-α and PGE2 in the OA Ob. In addition, the main catabolic and inflammatory factors including MMP-1, MMP-13 and COX-2 are enhanced following PAR-2 receptor activation in the OA cartilage. Similarly, the activation of PAR-2 in OA Ob lead to an increased production of pro-resorptive factors such as RANKL, IL-6, MMP-1 and MMP-9, and an increased pro-resorptive activity of these cells. In addition, in both tissue types, PAR-2 activation increases the activity of certain protein MAPKinases family such as Erk1/2, p38 and JNK. Finally, we have performed an in vivo study using an OA induced model in wild-type and PAR-2 gene knock-out mice. Our results demonstrated that the absence of PAR-2 expression and production influenced the inflammatory process and structural changes affecting the cartilage and the subchondral bone, leading to a slowing down of OA development. Our research investigation have bring to light that PAR-2 receptor is a key element during OA process by acting on the cartilage catabolic and inflammatory pathways as well as the tissue remodelling of the subchondral bone. Keywords : Osteoarthritis, chondrocyte, cartilage, osteoblast, subchondral bone, PAR-2, MMPs, COX, ILs, RANKL, bone resorption, MAPKinase , catabolism, inflammation