This essay examines the relationship between national consciousness and the Communist Revolution in China between the years 1921 and 1928. / In tracing the trajectory of the national consciousness in our stipulated time period we can discern three distinct phases in its manifestation. Up until 1919 national consciousness was confined primarily to an intellectual elite whose primary concern was the decadence of the Imperial and Confucian state. Following the May Fourth movement (1919), these concerns came to be diffused amongst the urban population. / After the formation of the Chinese Communist Party, the Party addressed nationalist concerns by focusing on the role of imperialists and warlords. This continued following the alliance with the Nationalist Party, the Guomindang, under the United Front. / By 1925 there was the growth of populist movements with distinctly anti-imperialist overtones. The same time also saw a growing interest in the potential of the peasantry as the vanguard for the nationalist revolution. After the April 12, 1927 coup, the Party focused exclusively on the peasantry to carry on with the Nationalist Revolution.

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The present project sets out to discover what the Xingshi yinyuan zhuan ('A Tale of Marriage Destinies that will Bring Society to its Senses'), an anonymous novel of manners from seventeenth-century China, can tell us about life in the world out of which it emerged. Seventeenth-century records depict China on the verge of modernity as a world torn between the traditional agricultural society and the new challenges of urban life, commerce and a money economy. The shifts from conventional norms and values gave rise to concepts of Utopia and anti-utopia: to nostalgia for the lost paradise of the past and to apocalyptic satire on present conditions. Scholars have noted the prominence of utopianism in seventeenthcentury fiction but no detailed study has been undertaken so far. Utopianism is here explored in terms of the indigenous Chinese traditions. The text of the Xingshi yinyuan zhuan is analysed to see how it perceives and reflects the seventeenth century Chinese world. Utopia serves as an analytical construct to recreate a glimpse of society and the moral evaluation of the world through the eyes of a contemporary observer. The body of the thesis analyses three major motifs in the Xingshi yinyuan zhuan: the healers, the elite and the mother. Critical comparison with other contemporary literary and historical sources attempts to place the novel into its context. The visions of Utopia and anti-utopia provide insight into the dreams and nightmares as seventeenth-century Chinese minds may have perceived them, shedding light on the vernacular culture as opposed to the officially recognised and imperially ordained culture of China.

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The thesis is a study of a traditional popular art form of China known as New Year Pictures. Although the production of these woodblock printed images virtually ceased early this century, the relevance of this art form in contemporary China has continued. The New Year Picture is often hailed as a prototype for modern forms of visual expression. A renewed interest in this old art form has also prompted widespread conservation of the New Year Picture at the same time as making it the subject of scholarly pursuit. This study evaluates the relevance of New Year Pictures to contemporary art and society by focussing on prints produced in the period spanning the century from 1842 to 1942. This period is definitive of the changes that occurred within the popular art form. The year 1842 marks the end of the Opium War with Britain and the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing, permanently changing China’s international relationships. This, in turn, impacted greatly upon Chinese society and culture. The 1942 was the year of Mao’s “Talks at the Yan’an Conference on Literature and Art”. In mapping out strategies for artists to participate in the communist transformation of Chinese society, the “Talks” articulated an approach to Chinese art and culture that would permanently alter the way in which artistic traditions were to be utilised, both in a practical way and in the sense of how the past was to be perceived.

Nossa pesquisa insere-se em um grande grupo de críticas que propõe leituras para a obra rodrigueana, que, desde o surgimento dos primeiros textos, tem criado discussão e tem sido por isso analisada através das mais diversas teorias. Queremos propor a análise de quatro das mais controversas peças de Nelson Rodrigues e, já que isso esbarra em aspectos políticos, analisar a posição intelectual do autor, bastante polêmica em um momento de divisão política muito clara. Primeiro mostramos o contexto em que a obra insere-se, considerando: a intelectualidade, a sociedade e a recepção da obra. Depois, lembramos da posição manifesta do autor através das crônicas culturais, nas quais se afirma reacionário. Em seguida, a fim de mostrar a qualidade revolucionária dos textos de Rodrigues, escolhemos o grupo de peças míticas: Álbum de família (1946), Anjo negro (1947), Senhora dos afogados (1947) e Dorotéia (1949). Esse grupo nos pareceu mais interessante porque nele o autor busca uma aproximação ao modelo grego de tragédia e foge da ambientação direta, como acontece nas tragédias cariocas. Nossa análise enfatiza uma perspectiva histórico-antropológica através de Freyre (2004), Holanda (1977) e DaMatta (1985 e 1990), que revelam os problemas sociais e culturais do Brasil apontados criticamente por Nelson Rodrigues; e uma perspectiva filosófica e psicanalítica da moral, através de Nietzsche (1998) e Freud (1974), que esclarecem os conflitos morais assinalados pelo autor. Por fim, mostramos que através da fórmula trágica, que também traz um componente político, o autor revela sua face revolucionária, pondo em debate no teatro justamente os pontos que a sociedade brasileira mais tentou ocultar em seu processo civilizatório. / Our research project is part of a larger group which proposes readings of the works of Nelson Rodrigues. Since they were published, these works have generated a lot of discussion and thus have been analyzed through a set of different theories. We aim at providing one more little piece for this infinite puzzle, proposing an analysis of four of the most controversial plays by Nelson Rodrigues and taking into account the intellectual position of the author, which was very polemic at a time of very clear political disunion.We first set the work in context, considering intellectuals, society and the reception of the work. Then, we recollect the manifest position of the author on his cultural chronicles, in which he states that he is politically conservative. After that, in order to highlight the revolutionary quality of the texts by Nelson Rodrigues, we select a group of mythic plays: Álbum de família (1946), Anjo negro (1947), Senhora dos afogados (1947) and Dorotéia (1949). This group of plays has called our attention once it shows the attempt of the author in coming closer to the model of the Greek tragedy and in escaping from the direct setting, as it normally happens in the “carioca” tragedies. Our analysis mainly tries to provide a historic-anthropological perspective, based on Freyre (2004), Holanda (1977) and Damatta (1985 e 1990), who reveal the social and cultural problems in Brazil which were critically pointed out by Nelson Rodrigues. It also tries to provide a philosophical and psychoanalytical perspective of the moral based on Nietzsche (1998) and Freud (1974), who clear up the moral conflicts pointed out by the author. By using the tragic formula, which also brings about a political component, the author shows his revolutionary face, opening debate at the theatre exactly about the points which the Brazilian society has mostly tried to omit in its civilizatory process.

Tesis para optar al grado de Doctor en Literatura Hispanoamericana y Chilena / La promesa común de representar la realidad sociohistórica chilena de manera realista está en la base de la construcción programática de los ciclos novelescos de Alberto Blest Gana y Carlos Droguett. Teniendo esto a la vista, la presente investigación aborda las diversas formas que asume el realismo literario en las obras de estos autores, dando cuenta de las transformaciones que han operado sobre el criterio de realismo como práctica representacional en la novela chilena de los siglos XIX y XX, así como del sentido que en sus novelas adquiere la representación literaria de una sociedad chilena históricamente en tránsito y la función que cada escritor asigna a la literatura en relación a sus respectivos contextos sociohistóricos. Por otra parte, las propuestas realistas de Blest Gana y Droguett se conectan por su familiar inclinación a asumir literariamente la representación de algunos hechos relevantes de la historia chilena de los siglos XIX y XX, respectivamente. En virtud de ello, se revisan las mutuas implicancia entre realismo literario e historia en el contexto nacional, contrastando las concepciones sobre lo histórico y los criterios de representación realista que han asumido nuestros autores en su intento de emular al discurso de la historiografía (como creemos es el caso del realismo blestganiano) o bien en su propósito de transgredir abiertamente dicho modelo discursivo con arreglo a una nueva noción de lo que debiera ser una representación realista (como ocurre, a nuestro juicio, en el realismo droguettiano).

This thesis argues that Patrick White’s Voss, Michael Ondaatje’s The English Patient and David Malouf’s An Imaginary Life depict landscape in a manner that reveals the inadequacies of imperial epistemological discourses and the rationalist model of subjectivity which enables them. The study demonstrates that these novels all emphasise the instabilities inherent in imperial epistemology. White, Ondaatje and Malouf chart their protagonists’ inability to comprehend and document the landscapes they encounter, and the ways in which this failure calls into question their subjectivity and the epistemologies that underpin it. One of the principal contentions of the study, then, is that the novels under consideration deploy a postmodern aesthetic of the sublime to undermine colonial discourses. The first chapter of the thesis outlines the postcolonial and poststructural theory that informs the readings in the later chapters. Chapter Two analyses White’s representation of subjectivity, imperial discourse and the Outback in Voss. The third chapter examines Ondaatje’s depiction of the Sahara Desert in The English Patient, and focuses on his concern with the ways in which language and cartographic discourse influence the subject’s perception of the natural world. Chapter Four investigates the representation of landscape, language and subjectivity in Malouf’s An Imaginary Life. Finally, then, this study argues that literature’s unique ability to acknowledge alterity enables it to serve as an effective tool for critiquing colonial discourses.

O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma leitura do romance Drácula, do escritor irlandês Bram Stoker, publicado em 1897. O propósito do estudo é identificar os arquétipos e imagens predominantes em Drácula, mostrando em que medida eles representam questões pertinentes à sociedade vitoriana e aos públicos receptores que obra teve desde então. A obra é publicada em um momento histórico que se configura ponto crucial na conflituada transição entre os antigos valores rurais britânicos e os da moderna sociedade urbana contemporânea, e a conseqüência desta transição é uma mudança drástica no código comportamental britânico. Diversos elementos desta transformação podem ser identificados nas representações simbólicas encontradas no romance de Stoker, e a voracidade com que a obra é consumida pelos leitores desde a época vitoriana se configura sintoma das premências decorrentes da excessiva repressão daquele período. A análise do arquétipo do vampiro e das imagens arquetípicas apresentadas em Drácula se dará predominantemente através do exame das implicações psicológicas e antropológicas ligadas ao imaginário do Sangue. O embasamento teórico se ampara nas contribuições prestadas por Carl Gustav Jung e Gilbert Durand. A dissertação vem subdividida em três capítulos. Na primeira parte do capítulo um apresento as contextualizações referentes a certos fenômenos observados na sociedade vitoriana, especialmente no que tange às implicaturas de gênero no código comportamental da época, e na segunda apresento contextualizações referentes a personagens históricos que influenciaram Bram Stoker na criação de seu personagem principal. No segundo capítulo, remeto ao embasamento teórico, apresentando os conceitos definidos por Jung nos quais a leitura do capítulo 3 se ampara, bem como analiso símbolos, imagens e arquétipos em Drácula de acordo com os regimes da imaginação propostos por Durand. No terceiro capítulo ofereço minha leitura do romance, na qual identifico e analiso imagens e símbolos do Sangue presentes no romance. Na conclusão, apresento as últimas considerações, com o intuito de ratificar as fortes ligações que se estabelecem entre os significados velados inscritos no romance e as vivências da sociedade receptora, tendo como base o mito do vampiro e sua associação com o imaginário do sangue na tentativa de explicar a bemsucedida e contínua recepção do romance. / The aim of this thesis is to present a reading of Dracula, published in 1897 by the Irish author Bram Stoker. The purpose of the investigation is to identify the predominant archetypes and images in Dracula, showing to what extent they represent relevant issues to Victorian society and the audiences the novel has had since then. The work is published in a crucial historical moment, during which the British traditional rural values are replaced by modern and urban ones. A major consequence of such a transition is a drastic change in the British behavioral code. Several elements in such a transformation can be identified in Stoker’s novel, and the eagerness with which the work was accepted by Victorian audiences is a symptom of the needs that resulted from the excessive repression from that period. The analysis of the archetype of the vampire and the archetypal images presented in Dracula unfolds predominantly through the examination of the psychological and anthropological implications connected to blood imagery. The main theoretical tools come from the studies of Carl Gustav Jung and Gilbert Durand. The thesis is subdivided in three chapters. In the first part of chapter one I present some contextualization referring to certain phenomena perceived in the Victorian society, mainly the ones regarding the gender implications in the behavioral code of the time, and in the second part I present contextualization connected to historical characters who influenced Bram Stoker in the creation of his main character. In chapter two I present the theoretical approach, introducing the concepts defined by Jung upon which the reading in chapter 3 is based. I also analyze symbols, images and archetypes in Dracula according to the orders of the image proposed by Durand. In chapter three I offer my reading, identifying and analyzing blood images and symbols in the novel. In the conclusion, I present the final considerations, with the purpose of ratifying the strong bonds connecting the underlying meanings present in the novel and the life experience of the audience, having as a basis the myth of the vampire and its association to the blood imaginary, in an attempt to explain the successful and continuous reception of the novel.