Os mecanismos moleculares que levam ao dano da via nigroestriatal durante a progressão da Doença de Parkinson (DP) ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Dessa forma, existe a necessidade de desenvolver modelos experimentais adequados para o estudo desse distúrbio neurodegenerativo. A linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y tratada com neurotoxinas indutoras deste distúrbio (ex.: 6-hidroxidopamina - 6-OHDA) é amplamente utilizada como modelo in vitro da DP. Muitos estudos mostram que esta linhagem pode ser diferenciada em células dopaminérgicas através da combinação da diminuição do soro fetal bovino (SFB) em meio de cultura e da adição de neurotrofinas como o ácido retinóico (AR). No entanto, há poucos estudos mostrando as diferenças entre células proliferativas e diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y, além do efeito do tratamento com 6-OHDA. Ainda, não há um consenso nos protocolos de diferenciação. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi estabelecer um protocolo de diferenciação dopaminérgica da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, bem como avaliar a potencialidade do modelo como plataforma para o screening de neurotoxicidade/neuroproteção de compostos e a possibilidade de manipulação gênica. As células proliferativas SH-SY5Y foram mantidas em meio de cultura DMEM/F12 (1:1) suplementado com 10% de SFB. A diferenciação foi induzida pela combinação de 10 μM de AR e meio de cultura com 1% de SFB durante 4, 7 e 10 dias. Foram avaliados parâmetros morfológicos (presença de neuritos) e neuroquímicos, através marcadores de diferenciação neuronal (DAT- transportador de dopamina; TH – tirosina hidroxilase; ENS – enolase neurônio específica; NeuN – proteína nuclear de neurônio; Nestina). Ainda, avaliamos parâmetros de estresse oxidativo através da atividade de enzimas antioxidantes e dos níveis de tióis reduzidos. Nossos dados mostraram que as células SH-SY5Y diferenciadas por 7 dias apresentaram mudanças morfológicas e o aumento do imunoconteúdo de todos os marcadores neuronais testados, e a concomitantemente diminuição do imunoconteúdo de nestina (marcador de células indiferenciadas). Além disso, o fenótipo neuronal apresentou uma maior atividade de alguns sistemas antioxidantes. Também foi avaliada a citotoxicidade frente ao H2O2 e à 6-OHDA nos dois fenótipos. As células diferenciadas se mostraram mais resistentes ao dano causado pelo H2O2 e mais sensíveis à 6-OHDA. Dessa forma, a citotoxicidade da 6-OHDA pode estar relacionada com o aumento do imunoconteúdo do DAT, visto que a neurotoxina entra na célula dopaminérgica através deste transportador. Interessantemente, as células diferenciadas apresentaram aumento dos níveis da proteína neuroprotetora DJ-1, que está relacionada a uma forma prematura de Parkinsonismo em humanos. Após a caracterização do modelo, nós utilizamos o fenótipo diferenciado como plataforma experimental para o screening de compostos neuroprotetores como os organocalcogênios. Nós determinamos a citotoxidade destes compostos em células diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y. A partir destes dados, foram selecionados compostos com baixa citotoxicidade e avaliamos a morfologia celular (densidade de neuritos). Nós verificamos que antes da perda de viabilidade, ocorre a perda de neuritos, sendo que este parâmetro é outra vantagem do modelo de célula diferenciada para avaliação da neurototoxicidade. Ainda, verificamos que estes compostos são capazes de prevenir o dano celular causado pela 6-OHDA. Além disso, nós caracterizamos a capacidade do modelo de ser manipulado geneticamente através da transfecção e superexpressão de plasmídeo contendo a proteína verde fluorescente, onde verificamos que a expressão é mantida durante a diferenciação. Dessa forma, nossos dados mostraram a eficácia da padronização da diferenciação induzida por AR da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, pois estas células apresentam características morfológicas e neuroquímicas adequadas de neurônio dopaminérgico bem como pode ser aplicado não só para avaliação de neurototoxicidade/neuroproteção, mas também pode ser manipulado geneticamente. / The molecular mechanisms underlying the massive cellular loss found in the nigrostriatal pathway during the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) are not completely understood. Therefore, it is important to develop more suitable experimental models to study the molecular mechanisms of this neurodegenerative disorder. Proliferative human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y challenged with neurotoxins (e.g.: 6-hydroxydopamine – 6-OHDA) has been widely used as an in vitro model for PD. Many lines of evidence showed that this cell line differentiates with the combination of lower fetal bovine serum (FBS) and retinoic acid (RA) to dopaminergic-like neural cell. However, there are few studies addressing the differences between proliferative and RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as well as their responses to 6-OHDA cytotoxicity. Moreover, there is no consensus in differentiation protocols. Hence, the objective of this study was to establish a RAinduced dopaminergic differentiation protocol and also evaluate its capabilities for drug screening of neurotoxicity/neuroprotection and genetic manipulation. Exponentially growing SH-SY5Y cells were maintained with DMEM/F12 (1:1) medium plus 10% FBS. Differentiation was triggered by the combination of 10 μM of RA plus medium with 1% of FBS during 4, 7 and 10 days. We evaluated the cell morphology (neurites) and the neuronal markers (Dopamine Transporter- DAT, Tyrosine Hydroxylase-TH, Neuron-Specific Enolase-NSE, Neuronal Nuclei Protein- NeuN, and Nestin immunocontent). Furthermore, we verify the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the reduced thiol levels. Our data demonstrated that SH-SY5Y cells differentiated for 7 days expresses all neuronal markers tested with concomitant decrease in nondifferentiated marker (nestin). Besides, they showed a higher activity of some antioxidant systems. We also evaluated the cytotoxicity of H2O2 and 6-OHDA in both phenotypes. Differentiated cells are more resistant to H2O2 and more sensitive to 6- OHDA. Hence, the damage caused by 6-OHDA could be related with the increase of DAT immuncontent, because this neurotoxin enters into the dopaminergic cell through this transporter. Interestingly, the differentiated cells have more levels of neuroprotective DJ-1 protein, which is related with a juvenile Parkinsonism. After establish the conditions of differentiation, we used the neuronal phenotype to perform a drug screening with organoselenide compounds. We verify the cytotoxicity of these compounds in differentiated cells. From these data, we selected compounds with low toxicity and evaluated the cell morphology (neurites density). We verify that before the loss of viability, there is a loss of neurites. This parameter is another advantage of the differentiated cells model to neurotoxicity evaluation. Moreover, these compounds were able to prevent neuronal cell death caused by 6-OHDA. We also characterized the ability of the model to be manipulated genetically through transfection and overexpression of a green fluorescent protein (GFP) plasmid. We verify that the expression of GFP is maintained during the differentiation. Hence, our data showed the efficacy of the RA-induced differentiation protocol of the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, because these cells have morphological and neurochemical characteristics of dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, the neuronal phenotype can be applyed not only to evaluate neurocytotoxicity/neuroprotection but also can be manipulated genetically.

The dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) is responsible for the marked motor impairment observed in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this are not completely understood. Since by the time of diagnosis, 50-70% of the dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal pathway have already been degenerated, it is difficult to investigate the early-stage events of disease pathogenesis. Due to inaccessibility of the human brain to study initial pathogenic mechanisms of the disease, experimental models have been developed in an attempt to elucidate PD etiology and its progression. Nevertheless, PD models are a controversial issue in neuroscience research since it is challenging to mimic human neuronal complexity. Therefore, the lack of optimal models that recreate disease pathology is one of the causes of failure of clinical trials that have attempted to find new/better PD therapies. Taking this in consideration, the development of more suitable models is necessary to improve our knowledge regarding PD etiological mechanisms. Additionally, the understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of models already established would also be beneficial for PD research, which our group addressed by reviewing this subject. Considering this, we chose SH-SY5Y cells as a PD model for our studies. To investigate the initial stages of PD-induced neurodegeneration, our work focused in the role of cofilin-1, a protein involved in mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidant-induced-apoptosis, which are two pathogenic processes strongly related to PD. Hence, in the thesis, we aimed to validate the use of retinoic-acid-(RA)-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as an in vitro model and use it to investigate the potential role of cofilin-1 in the initial molecular and cellular mechanisms of PD. Although SH-SY5Y cells are widely used in PD research, their major drawback is their lack of important neuronal features, such as low levels of proliferation and stellate morphology. On the other hand, SH-SY5Y cells can acquire a neuronal phenotype when treated with differentiation agents such as RA. Since several protocols have been described, the consequence of which may be the discrepancies observed among studies regarding neuronal and dopaminergic features. In Chapter I, we aimed to validate a RA-differentiation protocol for SH-SY5Y cells previously established by our research group, focusing upon characterization of neuronal features and its subsequent response to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a toxin widely used to induce dopaminergic degeneration. RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells have low proliferative rates, a pronounced neuronal morphology and high expression of genes related to synapse vesicle cycle, dopamine synthesis/degradation, and dopamine transporter (DAT). After exploring phenotypic differences between these two models, we verified that RA-differentiated cells were more sensitive to 6-OHDA toxicity than undifferentiated cells, which could be related to an increase of DAT immunocontent. Many lines of evidence have showed that DAT is responsible for 6-OHDA uptake in vivo. Once inside the neuron, 6-OHDA underwent auto-oxidation causing a significant increase in oxidative stress. However, toxin uptake is not an essential step in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells, as auto-oxidation occurs extracellularly. We showed here, for the first time, that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells can mimic, at least in part, an important mechanism of the 6-OHDA-induced cell death found in previous in vivo studies. Hence, the cellular model established by our research group presents essential neuronal features, being a suitable model for PD research. In Chapter II, RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells were used as cellular model to investigate disease molecular mechanisms, focusing upon cofilin-1. Our previous data have shown that oxidation of non-phosphorylate (activated) cofilin-1 leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death induced by apoptosis in tumour cells. Here we found that cofilin-1 played a role in early stages of neuronal apoptosis induced by 6-OHDA in our cellular model since cofilin-1 mitochondrial translocation precedes organelle dysfunction. Overexpression of wild type CFL1 resulted in increased sensitivity of SH-SY5Y cells to 6-OHDA-induced neuronal cell death. Furthermore, overexpression of non-oxidizable CFL1 containing Cys-to-Ala mutations (positions 39, 80 and 139) increased neuronal resistance to this toxin, suggesting that oxidation is an important step in 6-OHDA toxicity. Follow-up experiments were performed in order to evaluate clinically whether cofilin-1 pathway proteins content is altered in PD post mortem human brain. Our findings showed a significant decrease in p-cofilin-1/cofilin-1 ratio in PD patients, which indicates an increase in the amount of activated cofilin-1 available for oxidation. Moreover, through principal component analysis, the immunodetection of cofilin-1 pathway proteins were able to discriminate controls and PD individuals during the early-stage of neuropathological changings. Hence, we demonstrated, for the first time, a possible role for cofilin-1 in PD pathogenesis and its potential use as biomarker. Taken together, our data showed that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells present terminally-differentiated dopaminergic neuron features, that are essential to mimic dopaminergic neurons. By using this cellular model and post mortem brain tissue, we also demonstrated a possible role for cofilin-1 in early steps of the neurodegeneration process found in PD, which it could impact drug and biomarker discovery researches.

The dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) is responsible for the marked motor impairment observed in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this are not completely understood. Since by the time of diagnosis, 50-70% of the dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal pathway have already been degenerated, it is difficult to investigate the early-stage events of disease pathogenesis. Due to inaccessibility of the human brain to study initial pathogenic mechanisms of the disease, experimental models have been developed in an attempt to elucidate PD etiology and its progression. Nevertheless, PD models are a controversial issue in neuroscience research since it is challenging to mimic human neuronal complexity. Therefore, the lack of optimal models that recreate disease pathology is one of the causes of failure of clinical trials that have attempted to find new/better PD therapies. Taking this in consideration, the development of more suitable models is necessary to improve our knowledge regarding PD etiological mechanisms. Additionally, the understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of models already established would also be beneficial for PD research, which our group addressed by reviewing this subject. Considering this, we chose SH-SY5Y cells as a PD model for our studies. To investigate the initial stages of PD-induced neurodegeneration, our work focused in the role of cofilin-1, a protein involved in mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidant-induced-apoptosis, which are two pathogenic processes strongly related to PD. Hence, in the thesis, we aimed to validate the use of retinoic-acid-(RA)-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as an in vitro model and use it to investigate the potential role of cofilin-1 in the initial molecular and cellular mechanisms of PD. Although SH-SY5Y cells are widely used in PD research, their major drawback is their lack of important neuronal features, such as low levels of proliferation and stellate morphology. On the other hand, SH-SY5Y cells can acquire a neuronal phenotype when treated with differentiation agents such as RA. Since several protocols have been described, the consequence of which may be the discrepancies observed among studies regarding neuronal and dopaminergic features. In Chapter I, we aimed to validate a RA-differentiation protocol for SH-SY5Y cells previously established by our research group, focusing upon characterization of neuronal features and its subsequent response to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a toxin widely used to induce dopaminergic degeneration. RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells have low proliferative rates, a pronounced neuronal morphology and high expression of genes related to synapse vesicle cycle, dopamine synthesis/degradation, and dopamine transporter (DAT). After exploring phenotypic differences between these two models, we verified that RA-differentiated cells were more sensitive to 6-OHDA toxicity than undifferentiated cells, which could be related to an increase of DAT immunocontent. Many lines of evidence have showed that DAT is responsible for 6-OHDA uptake in vivo. Once inside the neuron, 6-OHDA underwent auto-oxidation causing a significant increase in oxidative stress. However, toxin uptake is not an essential step in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells, as auto-oxidation occurs extracellularly. We showed here, for the first time, that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells can mimic, at least in part, an important mechanism of the 6-OHDA-induced cell death found in previous in vivo studies. Hence, the cellular model established by our research group presents essential neuronal features, being a suitable model for PD research. In Chapter II, RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells were used as cellular model to investigate disease molecular mechanisms, focusing upon cofilin-1. Our previous data have shown that oxidation of non-phosphorylate (activated) cofilin-1 leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death induced by apoptosis in tumour cells. Here we found that cofilin-1 played a role in early stages of neuronal apoptosis induced by 6-OHDA in our cellular model since cofilin-1 mitochondrial translocation precedes organelle dysfunction. Overexpression of wild type CFL1 resulted in increased sensitivity of SH-SY5Y cells to 6-OHDA-induced neuronal cell death. Furthermore, overexpression of non-oxidizable CFL1 containing Cys-to-Ala mutations (positions 39, 80 and 139) increased neuronal resistance to this toxin, suggesting that oxidation is an important step in 6-OHDA toxicity. Follow-up experiments were performed in order to evaluate clinically whether cofilin-1 pathway proteins content is altered in PD post mortem human brain. Our findings showed a significant decrease in p-cofilin-1/cofilin-1 ratio in PD patients, which indicates an increase in the amount of activated cofilin-1 available for oxidation. Moreover, through principal component analysis, the immunodetection of cofilin-1 pathway proteins were able to discriminate controls and PD individuals during the early-stage of neuropathological changings. Hence, we demonstrated, for the first time, a possible role for cofilin-1 in PD pathogenesis and its potential use as biomarker. Taken together, our data showed that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells present terminally-differentiated dopaminergic neuron features, that are essential to mimic dopaminergic neurons. By using this cellular model and post mortem brain tissue, we also demonstrated a possible role for cofilin-1 in early steps of the neurodegeneration process found in PD, which it could impact drug and biomarker discovery researches.

Os mecanismos moleculares que levam ao dano da via nigroestriatal durante a progressão da Doença de Parkinson (DP) ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Dessa forma, existe a necessidade de desenvolver modelos experimentais adequados para o estudo desse distúrbio neurodegenerativo. A linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y tratada com neurotoxinas indutoras deste distúrbio (ex.: 6-hidroxidopamina - 6-OHDA) é amplamente utilizada como modelo in vitro da DP. Muitos estudos mostram que esta linhagem pode ser diferenciada em células dopaminérgicas através da combinação da diminuição do soro fetal bovino (SFB) em meio de cultura e da adição de neurotrofinas como o ácido retinóico (AR). No entanto, há poucos estudos mostrando as diferenças entre células proliferativas e diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y, além do efeito do tratamento com 6-OHDA. Ainda, não há um consenso nos protocolos de diferenciação. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi estabelecer um protocolo de diferenciação dopaminérgica da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, bem como avaliar a potencialidade do modelo como plataforma para o screening de neurotoxicidade/neuroproteção de compostos e a possibilidade de manipulação gênica. As células proliferativas SH-SY5Y foram mantidas em meio de cultura DMEM/F12 (1:1) suplementado com 10% de SFB. A diferenciação foi induzida pela combinação de 10 μM de AR e meio de cultura com 1% de SFB durante 4, 7 e 10 dias. Foram avaliados parâmetros morfológicos (presença de neuritos) e neuroquímicos, através marcadores de diferenciação neuronal (DAT- transportador de dopamina; TH – tirosina hidroxilase; ENS – enolase neurônio específica; NeuN – proteína nuclear de neurônio; Nestina). Ainda, avaliamos parâmetros de estresse oxidativo através da atividade de enzimas antioxidantes e dos níveis de tióis reduzidos. Nossos dados mostraram que as células SH-SY5Y diferenciadas por 7 dias apresentaram mudanças morfológicas e o aumento do imunoconteúdo de todos os marcadores neuronais testados, e a concomitantemente diminuição do imunoconteúdo de nestina (marcador de células indiferenciadas). Além disso, o fenótipo neuronal apresentou uma maior atividade de alguns sistemas antioxidantes. Também foi avaliada a citotoxicidade frente ao H2O2 e à 6-OHDA nos dois fenótipos. As células diferenciadas se mostraram mais resistentes ao dano causado pelo H2O2 e mais sensíveis à 6-OHDA. Dessa forma, a citotoxicidade da 6-OHDA pode estar relacionada com o aumento do imunoconteúdo do DAT, visto que a neurotoxina entra na célula dopaminérgica através deste transportador. Interessantemente, as células diferenciadas apresentaram aumento dos níveis da proteína neuroprotetora DJ-1, que está relacionada a uma forma prematura de Parkinsonismo em humanos. Após a caracterização do modelo, nós utilizamos o fenótipo diferenciado como plataforma experimental para o screening de compostos neuroprotetores como os organocalcogênios. Nós determinamos a citotoxidade destes compostos em células diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y. A partir destes dados, foram selecionados compostos com baixa citotoxicidade e avaliamos a morfologia celular (densidade de neuritos). Nós verificamos que antes da perda de viabilidade, ocorre a perda de neuritos, sendo que este parâmetro é outra vantagem do modelo de célula diferenciada para avaliação da neurototoxicidade. Ainda, verificamos que estes compostos são capazes de prevenir o dano celular causado pela 6-OHDA. Além disso, nós caracterizamos a capacidade do modelo de ser manipulado geneticamente através da transfecção e superexpressão de plasmídeo contendo a proteína verde fluorescente, onde verificamos que a expressão é mantida durante a diferenciação. Dessa forma, nossos dados mostraram a eficácia da padronização da diferenciação induzida por AR da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, pois estas células apresentam características morfológicas e neuroquímicas adequadas de neurônio dopaminérgico bem como pode ser aplicado não só para avaliação de neurototoxicidade/neuroproteção, mas também pode ser manipulado geneticamente. / The molecular mechanisms underlying the massive cellular loss found in the nigrostriatal pathway during the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) are not completely understood. Therefore, it is important to develop more suitable experimental models to study the molecular mechanisms of this neurodegenerative disorder. Proliferative human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y challenged with neurotoxins (e.g.: 6-hydroxydopamine – 6-OHDA) has been widely used as an in vitro model for PD. Many lines of evidence showed that this cell line differentiates with the combination of lower fetal bovine serum (FBS) and retinoic acid (RA) to dopaminergic-like neural cell. However, there are few studies addressing the differences between proliferative and RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as well as their responses to 6-OHDA cytotoxicity. Moreover, there is no consensus in differentiation protocols. Hence, the objective of this study was to establish a RAinduced dopaminergic differentiation protocol and also evaluate its capabilities for drug screening of neurotoxicity/neuroprotection and genetic manipulation. Exponentially growing SH-SY5Y cells were maintained with DMEM/F12 (1:1) medium plus 10% FBS. Differentiation was triggered by the combination of 10 μM of RA plus medium with 1% of FBS during 4, 7 and 10 days. We evaluated the cell morphology (neurites) and the neuronal markers (Dopamine Transporter- DAT, Tyrosine Hydroxylase-TH, Neuron-Specific Enolase-NSE, Neuronal Nuclei Protein- NeuN, and Nestin immunocontent). Furthermore, we verify the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the reduced thiol levels. Our data demonstrated that SH-SY5Y cells differentiated for 7 days expresses all neuronal markers tested with concomitant decrease in nondifferentiated marker (nestin). Besides, they showed a higher activity of some antioxidant systems. We also evaluated the cytotoxicity of H2O2 and 6-OHDA in both phenotypes. Differentiated cells are more resistant to H2O2 and more sensitive to 6- OHDA. Hence, the damage caused by 6-OHDA could be related with the increase of DAT immuncontent, because this neurotoxin enters into the dopaminergic cell through this transporter. Interestingly, the differentiated cells have more levels of neuroprotective DJ-1 protein, which is related with a juvenile Parkinsonism. After establish the conditions of differentiation, we used the neuronal phenotype to perform a drug screening with organoselenide compounds. We verify the cytotoxicity of these compounds in differentiated cells. From these data, we selected compounds with low toxicity and evaluated the cell morphology (neurites density). We verify that before the loss of viability, there is a loss of neurites. This parameter is another advantage of the differentiated cells model to neurotoxicity evaluation. Moreover, these compounds were able to prevent neuronal cell death caused by 6-OHDA. We also characterized the ability of the model to be manipulated genetically through transfection and overexpression of a green fluorescent protein (GFP) plasmid. We verify that the expression of GFP is maintained during the differentiation. Hence, our data showed the efficacy of the RA-induced differentiation protocol of the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, because these cells have morphological and neurochemical characteristics of dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, the neuronal phenotype can be applyed not only to evaluate neurocytotoxicity/neuroprotection but also can be manipulated genetically.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O fitoterÃpico Aplause à um composto derivado do extrato etanÃlico do rizoma da planta Cimicifuga racemosa (Cr), comercialmente utilizado no tratamento de sintomas ocorrentes na menopausa, e cujos princÃpios ativos associados à bioatividade sÃo os fitoestrÃgenos, predominantes neste composto. Apesar de relatos na literatura indicarem outras atividades com potencial farmacolÃgico, os efeitos da administraÃÃo crÃnica deste fitoterÃpico sobre o sistema nervoso central (SNC), ainda permanecem nÃo esclarecidos na literatura. Por este motivo, o presente estudo investigou os possÃveis efeitos neuropsicofarmacolÃgicos e uma potencial atividade neuroprotetora de Cr em modelos in vivo e in vitro. Para este estudo, utilizou-se o fitoterÃpico AplauseÂ. Camundongos machos Swiss (25-30 g), tratados com Cr (1; 5; 10; 25; 50; 100 e 200 mg/Kg/21 dias/per os) ou salina (0,9%), foram submetidos a uma avaliaÃÃo neuropsicofarmacolÃgica preliminar, seguido pela realizaÃÃo de ensaios para anÃlise de atividade locomotora, ansiolÃtica, anti-depressiva e de aÃÃo sedativa/hipnÃtico. Para a investigaÃÃo do potencial neuroprotetor, utilizaram-se ratos machos Wistar (250-300 g), os quais foram submetidos ao modelo de doenÃa de Parkinson (DP), induzido por injeÃÃo unilateral de 6-hidroxidopamina (6-OHDA) em corpo estriado e, posteriormente, seguido pelo tratamento com Cr (1,25; 2,5 e 5 mg/Kg/21 dias/per os) ou salina (0,9%). No 21 dia, apÃs a induÃÃo da DP, realizaram-se os seguintes ensaios comportamentais: Campo aberto, Rota Rod e teste Rotacional induzido por apomorfina. ApÃs eutanÃsia, Ãreas cerebrais (camundongos e ratos) foram dissecadas e submetidas a anÃlises neuroquÃmicas e transcricionais. Adicionalmente, para anÃlise de uma possÃvel atividade antioxidante in vitro, realizaram-se ensaios para a determinaÃÃo de alteraÃÃes estruturais e eletroquÃmicas em mitocÃndrias prÃ-incubadas em soluÃÃo contendo Cr (50, 100 ou 200 Âg/mL) e submetidas a estresses prÃ-oxidativos. De acordo com os resultados, Cr promoveu aÃÃo ansiolÃtica e sedativa em camundongos, com efeito dose-dependente, e com alteraÃÃes transcricionais no hipocampo, similares ao antidepressivo Imipramina. Cr demonstrou atividade neuroprotetora contra alteraÃÃes neurocomportamentais, neuroquÃmicas e transcricionais induzida por 6-OHDA, em corpo estriado de ratos. Cr apresentou atividade antioxidante nos modelos in vivo e in vitro, os quais podem estar associados aos efeitos neuroprotetores observados in vivo. Portanto, Cr apresenta-se como um fitoterÃpico com possÃveis implicaÃÃes neuropsicofarmacolÃgicas e como uma potencial estratÃgia terapÃutica contra desordens neurodegenerativas. / Aplauseâs phytotherapic is a compound derived from ethanolic extract of the plant rhizome Cimifuga racemosa (Cr), commercially used for treatment of symptoms occurring at menopause. Cr shows as the main bioactives predominant the phytoestrogens. Despite reports in the literature indicate others activities with pharmacological potential, the effects of the chronic administration of this phytotherapic on the Central Neurvous System (CNS) remain uncleair. Thus, the present study investigated the possible neuropsychopharmacologic effects and a potential neuroprotective activity of Cr by in vivo and in vitro models. For this study, we used the ethanolic extract isolated from Cr present in the Aplauseâs phytotherapic. Initially, male Swiss mice (25-30 g) were chronically treated with Cr (1; 5; 10; 25; 50; 100 e 200 mg/Kg/21 days/ per os) or Saline (0.9%). After, animals were submitted to neuropsychopharmacological preliminary evaluation and possible physiological alterations, following by locomotor, anxiolytic, anti-depressive and hypnotic/sedative assays, respectively. To investigate the potential neuroprotective action, Wistar rats (250-300 g) were submitted to Parkinsonâs disease model (PD) induced by unilateral injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) on striatum, following by treatment with Cr (1.25; 2.5 e 5 mg/Kg/ 21 days/ per os) or Saline (0.9%). At 21st day, rats were submitted to neurobehavioral assays (Open field test, Rota rod and apomorphine-induced rotational test). Then, animals were euthanized and cerebral areas were dissected and used to perform neurochemical and transcriptional analyses. In addition, to evaluate a possible antioxidant activity in vitro, we performed assays to determine the effect of Cr (50, 100 and 200 Âg/mL) on structural and electro-chemical alterations induced by pro-oxidant agents in mitochondria. Our results shows that the treatment with Cr promotes anxiolotyc and sedative effects in mice, modulation and transcriptional changes on hippocampus like Imipramine. Cr shows neuroprotective activity against neurobehavioral, neurochemical and transcriptional alterations induced by 6-OHDA into striatum from rats. Cr exhibited antioxidant activity in vivo and in vitro models used in this study, which can be associated with neuroprotective effects observed in vivo. Additionally, Cr shows pharmacologic safety in animal models. Therefore, Cr represents a phytotherapic with possible neuropsychopharmacologic implications and as a potential therapeutic strategy against neurodegenerative disorders.

Os mecanismos bioquímicos envolvidos na maioria das doenças psiquiátricas ainda não estão esclarecidos. Estudos recentes têm sugerido a participação de espécies ativas de oxigênio em diversas patologias. Baseados em informações pre liminares da literatura, propusemo-nos a investigar o possível envolvimento de radicais de oxigênio e enzimas antioxidantes na esquizofrenia e psicose maníaco-depressiva. A análise das atividades eritrocitárias da superóxido dismutase (SOD) e glutationa peroxidase (GSH-Px) nestes pacientes mostrou níveis significativamente elevados de SOD (cerca de 1,5 vezes) em relação aos indivíduos normais. A comparação das atividades enzimáticas, em pacientes esquizofrênicos tratados e não-tratados com neurolépticos, tais como clorpromazina, haloperidol e prometazina, mostrou que o aumento da atividade de SOD não e dependente da farmacoterapia. O efeito da medicação sobre os níveis de atividade da SOD e GSH-Px foi avaliado em estudos-modelo com ratos, constatando-se que o tratamento agudo com clorpromazina e Li2C03 não alterou a atividade destas enzimas em eritrócitos, fígado ou cérebro. O tratamento crônico com clorpromazina resultou em uma diminuição significativa na atividade de SOD eritrocitária e da SOD total dos hemisférios cerebrais e cerebelo Um modelo para a geração de \"stress oxidativo\" cerebral foi proposto administrando-se a neurotoxina 6-hidroxidopamina (6-0HDA) no cérebro de ratos por via intraventricular. Com este modelo estudou-se a indução de SOD pela 6-hidroxidopamina, a nível cerebral e eritrocitário, observando-se aumento significante da atividade de SOD nos dois tecidos. O tratamento prévio com clorpromazina não modificou o efeito da 6-0HDA sobre a atividade da SOD sugerindo que o tratamento com neurolépticos não exclui a ocorrência de um \"stress oxidativo\" no cérebro embora tenha atuado como inibidor de peroxidação lipídica em estudos-modelo. A indução de lipoperoxidação por 6-OHDA em meio aerado tamponado foi demostrada em lipossomos multilamelares de lecitina de ovo, constatando-se inibição do processo pela clorpromazina. Analisando-se o efeito de SOD, catalase e sequestradores de radical hidroxila sobre a velocidade de peroxidase, constatou-se que este radical é o provável agente iniciador do processo. Pela técnica de ressonância paramagnética eletrônica usando captador de spin demonstrou-se a formação de radical hidroxila durante a autoxidação de 6-0HDA em pH fisiológico. Postulou-se que os efeitos lesivos da 6-0HDA possam ser devidos em parte à peroxidação lipídica induzida pelo radical hidroxila, gerado na autoxidação de 6-0HDA no cérebro. A formação de 6-OHDA, \"in vivo\", é um tema controverso na literatura. Tentou-se detectar a formação de cromatografia liquida de alta pressão, em homogenatos do corpo estriado de ratos tratados com inibidores da monoamino oxidase e da catecol-O-metil transferase e com D-anfetamina. Este tratamento foi realizado com o objetivo de simular uma condição onde ocorre uma hiperatividade dopaminérgica, como é proposto na esquizofrenia. Nossos resultados mostraram a formação de uma substância com o mesmo tempo de retenção da 6-OHDA, que, no entanto, não foi identificada como 6-OHDA. Sugere-se que esta substância possa ser outro produto hidroxilado da dopamina, tal como a 5-hidroxidopamina. O modelo experimental sugerido neste trabalho foi adequado para estudar a indução de \"stress oxidativo\" cerebral e deverá ser utilizado em estudos futuros, enfocando a indução de lesões a nível de barreira hemotoencefálica por espécies ativas de oxigênio, geradas por produtos da hidroxilados da dopamina. A formação exacerbada de espécies ativas de oxigênio por substratos endógenos autoxidáveis tais como derivados hidroxilados da dopamina, poderia provocar lesões em estruturas importantes do sistema nervoso central. O aumento da atividade eritrocitária de SOD, em pacientes psiquiátricos, pode ser interpretado como uma resposta da defesa do organismo contra os efeitos deletérios de espécies ativas de oxigênio, geradas no cérebro por estas substâncias endógenas, passiveis de romper a barreira hematoencefálica e atingir eritroblastos, a nível de medula óssea, onde poderiam induzir a síntese de SOD. / The biochemical mechanisms underlying the psychiatric disorders still are to be elucidated. Recent studies have suggested the participation of active oxygen species in a number of normal and pathological processes, including mental diseases. We have then decided to investigate the role of oxyradicals and anti-oxidant enzymes in the cases of schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis. The erythrocytic activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in blood obtained from schizophrenic and manic-depressive patients were shown to be 1.5 times higher than in normal individuals. Medication with neuroleptic agents such as chlorpromazine, holoperidol and promethazine did not affect the enzyme activities. In the case of manic-depression carriers, the trends for high anti-oxidant enzyme activities were also shown to be independent of lithium therapy. Model studies carried out with rats revealed that acute treatment with chlorpromazine and Li2C03 does not alter the enzyme activities in either blood, liver or brain. Chronic treatment with chlorpromazine led to significant decrease of erythrocytic SOD and total SOD in cerebral hemispheres and cerebelum. Oxidative stress in the brain of rats triggered by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-0HDA) - a well known neurotoxin is here described as a model aiming to shed some light to the present knowledge of the biochemical basis for those mental disorders. In fact, intraventricular administration of 6-0HDA to the brain of rats resulted in increased SOD levels of blood and brain tissues. Pre-treatment with chlorpromazine did not modify the SOD values, indicating that neuroleptic agents probably do not abolish the cerebral oxydative stress. In vitro studies showed that chlorpromazine does not affect the rate of 6-0HDA aerobic oxidation but inhibits the peroxidation of egg lechitin liposomes. That hydroxyl radicals generated during 6-0HDA autoxidation iniciates the lipoperoxidation is indicated by the observed inhibitory effect of added SOD, catalase and hydroxyl scavengers. Using EPR trapping techniques, hydroxyl radical formation during 6-0HDA autoxidation was confirmed. In vivo occurrence of 6-0HDA still remains a controverse fact in the literature. Using HPLC, we have tried to detect the accummulation of hydroxylated dopamines in homogenates prepared from the brain \"striatum\" of anphetamine-treated rats under concomitant treatment with monoamine oxidase and cathecol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors. Inject a component with approximately the same retention time as that of 6-0HDA was found in the chromatogram, perhaps the 5-0HDA. Based on those events we have tentatively proposed that active oxygen species produced by cerebral endogenous autoxidazable substracts such as 6-0HDA can indeed cause chemical lesions to important structures of the central nervous system, resulting neuro-psychiatria manifestations. In this study, we have interpreted the elevated erythrocytic SOD activities found in mental patients as a response against the deleterious effects of active oxygen species generated in the brain by such autoxidazable substracts which might cross the brain blood barrier, reach the erythroblasts and there induce the SOD biosynthesis.

Os mecanismos moleculares que levam ao dano da via nigroestriatal durante a progressão da Doença de Parkinson (DP) ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Dessa forma, existe a necessidade de desenvolver modelos experimentais adequados para o estudo desse distúrbio neurodegenerativo. A linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y tratada com neurotoxinas indutoras deste distúrbio (ex.: 6-hidroxidopamina - 6-OHDA) é amplamente utilizada como modelo in vitro da DP. Muitos estudos mostram que esta linhagem pode ser diferenciada em células dopaminérgicas através da combinação da diminuição do soro fetal bovino (SFB) em meio de cultura e da adição de neurotrofinas como o ácido retinóico (AR). No entanto, há poucos estudos mostrando as diferenças entre células proliferativas e diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y, além do efeito do tratamento com 6-OHDA. Ainda, não há um consenso nos protocolos de diferenciação. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi estabelecer um protocolo de diferenciação dopaminérgica da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, bem como avaliar a potencialidade do modelo como plataforma para o screening de neurotoxicidade/neuroproteção de compostos e a possibilidade de manipulação gênica. As células proliferativas SH-SY5Y foram mantidas em meio de cultura DMEM/F12 (1:1) suplementado com 10% de SFB. A diferenciação foi induzida pela combinação de 10 μM de AR e meio de cultura com 1% de SFB durante 4, 7 e 10 dias. Foram avaliados parâmetros morfológicos (presença de neuritos) e neuroquímicos, através marcadores de diferenciação neuronal (DAT- transportador de dopamina; TH – tirosina hidroxilase; ENS – enolase neurônio específica; NeuN – proteína nuclear de neurônio; Nestina). Ainda, avaliamos parâmetros de estresse oxidativo através da atividade de enzimas antioxidantes e dos níveis de tióis reduzidos. Nossos dados mostraram que as células SH-SY5Y diferenciadas por 7 dias apresentaram mudanças morfológicas e o aumento do imunoconteúdo de todos os marcadores neuronais testados, e a concomitantemente diminuição do imunoconteúdo de nestina (marcador de células indiferenciadas). Além disso, o fenótipo neuronal apresentou uma maior atividade de alguns sistemas antioxidantes. Também foi avaliada a citotoxicidade frente ao H2O2 e à 6-OHDA nos dois fenótipos. As células diferenciadas se mostraram mais resistentes ao dano causado pelo H2O2 e mais sensíveis à 6-OHDA. Dessa forma, a citotoxicidade da 6-OHDA pode estar relacionada com o aumento do imunoconteúdo do DAT, visto que a neurotoxina entra na célula dopaminérgica através deste transportador. Interessantemente, as células diferenciadas apresentaram aumento dos níveis da proteína neuroprotetora DJ-1, que está relacionada a uma forma prematura de Parkinsonismo em humanos. Após a caracterização do modelo, nós utilizamos o fenótipo diferenciado como plataforma experimental para o screening de compostos neuroprotetores como os organocalcogênios. Nós determinamos a citotoxidade destes compostos em células diferenciadas da linhagem de neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y. A partir destes dados, foram selecionados compostos com baixa citotoxicidade e avaliamos a morfologia celular (densidade de neuritos). Nós verificamos que antes da perda de viabilidade, ocorre a perda de neuritos, sendo que este parâmetro é outra vantagem do modelo de célula diferenciada para avaliação da neurototoxicidade. Ainda, verificamos que estes compostos são capazes de prevenir o dano celular causado pela 6-OHDA. Além disso, nós caracterizamos a capacidade do modelo de ser manipulado geneticamente através da transfecção e superexpressão de plasmídeo contendo a proteína verde fluorescente, onde verificamos que a expressão é mantida durante a diferenciação. Dessa forma, nossos dados mostraram a eficácia da padronização da diferenciação induzida por AR da linhagem de neuroblastoma humano SH-SY5Y, pois estas células apresentam características morfológicas e neuroquímicas adequadas de neurônio dopaminérgico bem como pode ser aplicado não só para avaliação de neurototoxicidade/neuroproteção, mas também pode ser manipulado geneticamente. / The molecular mechanisms underlying the massive cellular loss found in the nigrostriatal pathway during the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) are not completely understood. Therefore, it is important to develop more suitable experimental models to study the molecular mechanisms of this neurodegenerative disorder. Proliferative human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y challenged with neurotoxins (e.g.: 6-hydroxydopamine – 6-OHDA) has been widely used as an in vitro model for PD. Many lines of evidence showed that this cell line differentiates with the combination of lower fetal bovine serum (FBS) and retinoic acid (RA) to dopaminergic-like neural cell. However, there are few studies addressing the differences between proliferative and RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as well as their responses to 6-OHDA cytotoxicity. Moreover, there is no consensus in differentiation protocols. Hence, the objective of this study was to establish a RAinduced dopaminergic differentiation protocol and also evaluate its capabilities for drug screening of neurotoxicity/neuroprotection and genetic manipulation. Exponentially growing SH-SY5Y cells were maintained with DMEM/F12 (1:1) medium plus 10% FBS. Differentiation was triggered by the combination of 10 μM of RA plus medium with 1% of FBS during 4, 7 and 10 days. We evaluated the cell morphology (neurites) and the neuronal markers (Dopamine Transporter- DAT, Tyrosine Hydroxylase-TH, Neuron-Specific Enolase-NSE, Neuronal Nuclei Protein- NeuN, and Nestin immunocontent). Furthermore, we verify the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the reduced thiol levels. Our data demonstrated that SH-SY5Y cells differentiated for 7 days expresses all neuronal markers tested with concomitant decrease in nondifferentiated marker (nestin). Besides, they showed a higher activity of some antioxidant systems. We also evaluated the cytotoxicity of H2O2 and 6-OHDA in both phenotypes. Differentiated cells are more resistant to H2O2 and more sensitive to 6- OHDA. Hence, the damage caused by 6-OHDA could be related with the increase of DAT immuncontent, because this neurotoxin enters into the dopaminergic cell through this transporter. Interestingly, the differentiated cells have more levels of neuroprotective DJ-1 protein, which is related with a juvenile Parkinsonism. After establish the conditions of differentiation, we used the neuronal phenotype to perform a drug screening with organoselenide compounds. We verify the cytotoxicity of these compounds in differentiated cells. From these data, we selected compounds with low toxicity and evaluated the cell morphology (neurites density). We verify that before the loss of viability, there is a loss of neurites. This parameter is another advantage of the differentiated cells model to neurotoxicity evaluation. Moreover, these compounds were able to prevent neuronal cell death caused by 6-OHDA. We also characterized the ability of the model to be manipulated genetically through transfection and overexpression of a green fluorescent protein (GFP) plasmid. We verify that the expression of GFP is maintained during the differentiation. Hence, our data showed the efficacy of the RA-induced differentiation protocol of the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, because these cells have morphological and neurochemical characteristics of dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, the neuronal phenotype can be applyed not only to evaluate neurocytotoxicity/neuroprotection but also can be manipulated genetically.

Enhanced oral activity is induced in neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine- (6-OHDA-) lesioned rats by systemic administration of the dopamine (DA) D1 receptor agonist SKF 38393 and serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT2A,2C agonist m-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP). The DA D1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 effectively attenuates the effect of SKF 38393 but not m-CPP. The 5-HT2antagonist mianserin attenuates the effects of both m-CPP and SKF 38393, suggesting that DA agonist effects are mediated by 5-HT neurochemical systems. To test whether DA and 5-HT agonist effects and interactions might occur within the neostriatum, rats were implanted with permanent injection cannulae, with tips in the ventral striatum. One group of rats was lesioned at 3 days after birth with 6-OHDA HBr (100 μg salt form, in each lateral ventricle; desipramine HCl pretreatment, 20 mg/kg IP, base form, 1 h), while controls received the vehicle in place of 6-OHDA. Cannulae were implanted when rats weighed 200-250 g. During a 1-h observation session SKF 38393 (5 nmol per side) produced 74.3±19.2 oral movements in intact rats and 310.7±97.0 oral movements in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. m-CPP (10 nmol per side) produced 72.6±15.1 and 274.5±65.0 oral movements in these respective groups. These responses were several-fold greater than the 25.3±7.3 and 41.8±9.5 oral movements in the same groups after saline (0.5 μl per side) (P<0.05). Mianserin (6 nmol per side) alone had no effect on oral activity but attenuated responses to both SKF 38393 and m-CPP in intact and 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. These findings demonstrate that enhanced oral activity responses are produced by intrastriatal SKF 38393 and m-CPP in neonatal 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. Also, when the 5-HT2 receptor antagonist mianserin was administered intrastriatally, induction of oral activity by the DA D1 agonist SKF 38393 was attenuated. These findings indicate that ventral striatum represents at least one brain focus at which DA and 5-HT systems interact to modulate oral activity in rats.

Neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) treatment of rats is associated with concurrent supersensitization of dopamine (DA) D1 and serotonin 5-HT1C receptors, for agonist-induced oral activity. The present study was conducted to determine if graded reduction of striatal DA content and/or graded elevation of striatal 5-HT content by 6-OHDA would alter sensitivity of either receptor type, and thereby influence oral activity responses to DA and 5-HT agonists. At 3 days after birth, groups of rats were pretreated with desipramine (20 mg/kg i.p.), 1 h before administration of a range of doses of 6-OHDA HBr (15, 30, 60, 100, 150 and 200 μg, i.c.v., salt form; half in each lateral ventricle) or the vehicle, saline (0.85%)-ascorbic acid (0.1%). Between 2 and 4 months, a series of challenge doses of SKF 38393 HCl (0.30 to 3.0 mg/kg i.p.) and m-chlorophenylpiperazine 2HCl (0.30 to 6.0 mg/kg i.p.; m-CPP 2HCl) were administered to each group of rats and oral activity was observed. Oral activity was determined for 1 min every 10 min during a 60-min period, starting 10 min after injection of agonist or vehicle. SKF 38393 dose-response curves demonstrated enhanced oral activity responses in rats lesioned neonatally with 150 or 200 μg of 6-OHDA. m-CPP dose-response curves demonstrated enhanced oral activity responses in these 2 groups of rats, as well as those lesioned neonatally with 100 μg of 6-OHDA. Striatal DA content was reduced by > 97% in these 3 groups of rats. Striatal 5-HT content was elevated by > 80% in rats treated neonatally with 150- or 200-μg doses of 6-OHDA, and by 50% in rats treated neonatally with the 100-μg dose of 6-OHDA. Lower doses of 6-OHDA produced less of an effect on striatal DA and 5-HT content. Regression analysis determined that both SKF 38393- and m-CPP-induced oral activities were most closely correlated with the magnitude of change in striatal content of DA. These findings demonstrate that 5-HT agonist responses can be enhanced when DA agonist responses are not enhanced. Also, in neonatal 6-OHDA-lesioned rats the extent of DA depletion vs. the extent of 5-HT elevation seems to be a critical factor in the enhanced behavioral effects of DA and 5-HT agonists.

l-Prolyl-l-leucyl-glycinamide (MIF-1) is known to attenuate apomorphine-induced stereotypies in adult rats that are lesioned as neonates with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). To test whether MIF-1 would affect dopamine (DA) agonist-induced and serotonin (5-HT) agonist-induced oral activity, both intact and neonatal 6-OHDA-treated rats were studied. Rats at 3 days from birth were injected with desipramine (20 mg/kg, IP), 1 h before 6-OHDA HBr (100 μg, salt form, in each lateral ventricle) or its vehicle, saline-ascorbic acid (0.1%). At approximately 6 months rats were treated with MIF-1 (0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 mg/kg, IP), 10 min before SKF 39393 HCl (1.0 mg/kg, IP) or m-chlorophenylpiperazine 2HCl (m-CPP 2HCl; 0.5 mg/kg, IP), DA D1 and 5-HT1C,2 receptor agonists, respectively. Although both agonists increased oral activity in control and neonatal 6-OHDA-treated rats, MIF-1 did not modify the response. In rats that received either of the three doses of MIF-1 for 21 consecutive days, there was still no observed effect of MIF-1 on the oral response of control and 6-OHDA-lesioned rats to SKF 38393 and m-CPP. These findings indicate that MIF-1 does not modify the oral activity response of supersensitized D1 and 5-HT1C receptors in adult rats that are lesioned neonatally with 6-OHDA.