While environmental justice (EJ) research in the U.S. has traditionally focused on inequities in the distribution of technological hazards, the disproportionate impacts of Hurricane Katrina on racial minorities and socioeconomically disadvantaged households have prompted researchers to investigate the EJ implications of natural hazards such as flooding. Recent EJ research has also emphasized the need to examine social inequities in access to environmental amenities. Unlike technological hazards such as air pollution and toxic waste sites, areas exposed to natural hazards such as hurricanes and floods have indivisible amenities associated with them. Coastal property owners are exposed to flood hazards, but also enjoy water views and unhampered access to oceans and the unique recreational opportunities that beaches offer. Conversely, dense urban development and associated impervious surfaces increase likelihood of floods in inland areas which may lack the amenities of proximity to open water. This dissertation contributes to the emerging literature on EJ and social vulnerability to natural hazards by analyzing racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic inequities in the distribution of flood risk exposure in the Miami Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), Florida--one of the most hurricane-prone areas in the world and one of the most ethnically diverse MSAs in the U.S. The case study evaluates the EJ implications of residential exposure to coastal flood risk, inland flood risk, and no flood risk, in conjunction with coastal water related amenities, using geographic information science (GIS)-based techniques and logistic regression modeling to estimate flood risk exposure. Geospatial data from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are utilized to delineate coastal and inland 100-year flood hazard zones. Socio-demographic variables previously utilized in EJ research are obtained from tract level data published in the 2010 census and 2007-2011 American Community Survey five-year estimates. Principal components analysis is employed to condense several socio-demographic attributes into two neighborhood deprivation indices that represent economic insecurity and instability, respectively. Indivisible coastal water related amenities are represented by control variables of percent seasonal homes and proximity to public beach access sites. Results indicate that racial/ethnic minorities and those with greater social vulnerability based on the neighborhood deprivation indices are more likely to reside in inland flood zones and areas outside 100-year flood zones, while residents in coastal flood zones are disproportionately non-Hispanic White. Moreover, residents exposed to coastal flood risk tend to live in areas with ample coastal water related amenities, while racial/ethnic minorities and individuals with higher neighborhood deprivation who are exposed to inland flood risk or no flood risk reside in areas without coastal water related amenities. This dissertation elucidates the importance of EJ research on privilege and access to environmental amenities in conjunction with environmental hazards because areas exposed to natural hazards are likely to offer indivisible benefits. Estimating people and places exposed to hazards for EJ research becomes difficult when the boundaries of census areal units containing socio-demographic data do not match the boundaries of hazard exposure areas. This challenge is addressed with an application of dasymetric spatial interpolation using GIS-based techniques to disaggregate census tracts to inhabited parcels. Several spatial interpolation methods are assessed for relative accuracy in estimating population densities for the Miami MSA, and the output units from the most accurate method are employed in EJ regression analyses. The dasymetric mapping efforts utilized herein contribute to research on the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) and its effects on statistical analyses. Since the dasymetric mapping technique used for EJ analyses disaggregates census tracts to the inhabited parcel level, the results of the associated analyses for flood hazards exposure and access to coastal water related amenities should be more reliable than those based on tracts. The enhanced accuracy associated with inhabited parcels is a result of using a more precise geospatial depiction of residential populations, which leads to a more accurate portrayal of disproportionate exposure to flood hazards. Consequently, this dissertation contributes methodologically to GIS-based techniques of dasymetric spatial interpolation and empirically to EJ analysis of flood hazards with indivisible coastal water related amenities.

<p>The purpose of this thesis is to examine ongoing restructuring and its impacts on sparsely populated areas in Sweden and Finland. In the context of sparsely populated areas, the global processes have great local impact because of their poor capacity to adapt to rapid economic changes. The focus here is on tourism and forest-related employment, however amenity motives for mobility and migration are also considered in relation to restructuring. A major part of the information used in this thesis comes from a database collected and stored by Statistics Sweden.</p><p>Results show that employment in tourism in the Swedish mountain municipalities is largely seasonal in character. The seasonality of tourism has caused seasonal in-migration or long-distance commuting of young people, first and foremost to the southern mountain municipalities. The success of tourism as a regional development strategy is affected by the structure and characteristics of the local labour force. The importance of tourism for development also depends on other regional characteristics such as infrastructure, demographic composition, experience and education of the local labour force, as well as on attributes of the tourism industry. The assumed and almost automatic positive relationship between nature conservation and tourism is challenged. Tourism employment does not automatically follow from unemployment in forest sectors, accentuating differences in the characteristics of the labour force needed in tourism, forestry and related activities and the difficulty of enforcing restructuring and diversification towards tourism.</p><p>In the last article, analyses of the forest-related employment are in focus. It is concluded that there is no significant effect of climate change on employment. Instead other global, national and local processes and interrelationships, such as supply and demand and productivity increase, have a greater impact on employment. Forestry and related sectors have shifted towards a more capital intensive management, which means that the productivity rate of the each worker is so high that the increasing amount of harvestable forest due to climate change does not involve the employment of more people. The relative unimportance of forestry and forest-related employment in the research area has also been highlighted.</p><p>In conclusion, the economic restructuring processes in relation to tourism have been limited in a majority of the mountain municipalities. This is clearly demonstrated by the high level of seasonal labour mobility to some parts of the mountain area. However, there is evidence suggesting a positive relationship between seasonal tourism employment and permanent migration. To the north, there are fewer large resorts with high seasonal pressure than in the south. This means that tourism can be a way of maintaining work opportunities and sustaining local service. In the south and in the larger resorts, tourism might be a way to ensure more employment, albeit on a seasonal basis. Local diversity through place-dependent activities like tourism and resource-based recreation, as well as resource extraction, might offer opportunities for economic diversification. However, if the demographic structure is unbalanced there will be difficulties in pursuing economic restructuring and diversification. Add to this a peripheral location and there are many obstacles to increasing population, even temporarily. Thus, tourism development must be carefully considered on a local basis.</p>

The purpose of this thesis is to examine ongoing restructuring and its impacts on sparsely populated areas in Sweden and Finland. In the context of sparsely populated areas, the global processes have great local impact because of their poor capacity to adapt to rapid economic changes. The focus here is on tourism and forest-related employment, however amenity motives for mobility and migration are also considered in relation to restructuring. A major part of the information used in this thesis comes from a database collected and stored by Statistics Sweden. Results show that employment in tourism in the Swedish mountain municipalities is largely seasonal in character. The seasonality of tourism has caused seasonal in-migration or long-distance commuting of young people, first and foremost to the southern mountain municipalities. The success of tourism as a regional development strategy is affected by the structure and characteristics of the local labour force. The importance of tourism for development also depends on other regional characteristics such as infrastructure, demographic composition, experience and education of the local labour force, as well as on attributes of the tourism industry. The assumed and almost automatic positive relationship between nature conservation and tourism is challenged. Tourism employment does not automatically follow from unemployment in forest sectors, accentuating differences in the characteristics of the labour force needed in tourism, forestry and related activities and the difficulty of enforcing restructuring and diversification towards tourism. In the last article, analyses of the forest-related employment are in focus. It is concluded that there is no significant effect of climate change on employment. Instead other global, national and local processes and interrelationships, such as supply and demand and productivity increase, have a greater impact on employment. Forestry and related sectors have shifted towards a more capital intensive management, which means that the productivity rate of the each worker is so high that the increasing amount of harvestable forest due to climate change does not involve the employment of more people. The relative unimportance of forestry and forest-related employment in the research area has also been highlighted. In conclusion, the economic restructuring processes in relation to tourism have been limited in a majority of the mountain municipalities. This is clearly demonstrated by the high level of seasonal labour mobility to some parts of the mountain area. However, there is evidence suggesting a positive relationship between seasonal tourism employment and permanent migration. To the north, there are fewer large resorts with high seasonal pressure than in the south. This means that tourism can be a way of maintaining work opportunities and sustaining local service. In the south and in the larger resorts, tourism might be a way to ensure more employment, albeit on a seasonal basis. Local diversity through place-dependent activities like tourism and resource-based recreation, as well as resource extraction, might offer opportunities for economic diversification. However, if the demographic structure is unbalanced there will be difficulties in pursuing economic restructuring and diversification. Add to this a peripheral location and there are many obstacles to increasing population, even temporarily. Thus, tourism development must be carefully considered on a local basis.

Population retention and growth is a concern for cities, towns, and rural municipalities across Canada, and population change is one of the best available indicators of economic prosperity and community success. As such, it is important to understand the factors driving the location decisions of Canadians, and to use this information to help communities develop strategies to ensure their longevity and to comprehend the various features influencing future prosperity. The results of this study clearly show that local community characteristics do indeed influence local population growth. Important factors include economic indicators, the presence of different types of amenities, and the proximity of the community to urban areas. <p> Previous research has been completed on the topic of community population change and amenities in other countries, but Canada has not been examined until now. This study utilizes census data at the municipality level to examine these issues. The analysis consists of an econometric model with population change as the dependent variable, and a number of local factors as the explanatory variables. In general, the results of this study complied with theoretical predictions. Communities with favourable amenities and economic factors were found to have higher population growth. Also, different age groups were found to value different bundles of amenities and economic opportunities. <p> Amenities were found to be important factors affecting population growth. Communities with higher average housing prices and lower average incomes had higher population growth. Although this is seemingly a contradictory result, it implies that amenities have been capitalized into incomes and housing prices over time and thus more than income appears to be determining the pattern of housing values across Canada; an outcome predicted by the theoretical framework of the study. Medical amenities were found to be more important for older segments of the population, though all ages valued being near large acute care hospitals. Communities with high rates of violent crime tended to have lower population growth rates. Natural amenities such as mountains and pleasant weather, and the presence of water did not consistently result in higher community population growth. <p> Economic factors such as industry diversification, high local employment rates, and growing employment prospects were very important in influencing population growth, especially among younger segments of the population. However, economic and financial opportunities do not appear to affect migration decisions of the elderly, who are influenced more by medical amenities. Except for youth, local employment opportunities were not as important as having opportunities in surrounding communities. The presence of agriculture and resource extraction sectors tended to result in lower population growth. Finally, proximity to larger urban centres and population size appeared to be beneficial for communities. <p> Overall, the results of this study provide insight for community leaders, policy makers, and others interested in the dynamics of community population change, and will help governments efficiently allocate resources to communities and form strategies to deal with declining community populations.

Immigration is not new to Ecuador. Beginning in the early 2000s, the amenities migration phenomenon gained popularity in Ecuador, especially in the UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site of Cuenca, located about five and a half hours south of Quito and four hours east of Guayaquil in the Andes Mountains. This study combines literary research on retirement migration and a case study on the retired expatriate community in Cuenca, Azuay, Ecuador. The limited case study includes twelve in-depth interviews with retired expatriates living in Cuenca and nine interviews with Cuencanos that interact with retired expatriates daily. According to the expatriates, the advantages of living in Cuenca include the cheaper lifestyle, year-round spring-like weather, and a slower pace of life. The disadvantages consist of the concept of “Ecuadorian time” and the indirectness of Cuencanos. Data suggest that Cuencanos value the presence of retired expatriates because they help stimulate the economy, but they resent the impenetrable language barrier and their cultural disengagement. The Cuencanos’ responses also indicate that a deeper understanding of the country and culture is necessary on behalf of the retired expatriates to facilitate their integration into the existing culture rather than trying to create an exclusive subculture within Cuenca.

This thesis explores the transportation-land use connection through an investigation of accessibility and residential property values. Accessibility, broadly defined as the ability for locations to interact (Hansen, 1959) is considered a key principle of urban economic theory. This project builds upon the recommendations and conclusions of the literature calling for simultaneous consideration of both the quantitative (measured) and qualitative (perceived) impacts of accessibility on residential property values. This thesis utilizes a two stage research methodology in order to investigate the influence of access to amenities on residential property values. First, accessibility is quantified via an accessibility calculation for sample properties from three study areas within the Greater Toronto Area. This calculated access value is then correlated to real property sales data in order to explore the association between access and value. Second, a survey of real estate professionals explores the influence of perception and behavioural characteristics of accessibility and amenities in the residential location decision making process. The quantitative results are statistically significant however, the association between value and access is weak and varying in direction. The qualitative results indicate consistently that homebuyers are willing to pay for access to the amenities that they value. The average value of this access premium is determined to be approximately $10,000 or 3.5% of the average price for a single-detached home in the GTA. Given the methodological challenges experienced in the quantitative measurement of access, the overall results suggest that access does in fact matter. This research contributes to the literature by considering the impact of perception and behavioural characteristics on accessibility. Further this project serves to inform the debate around transportation-land use interactions.

Post-industrial economic restructuring in developed countries has downgraded the role of blue-collar labour in regional growth, giving way, conversely, to occupations that demand high concentrations of human capital. Human capital has been documented to positively affect regional growth and income, signifying an urban planning shift towards amenities provision, as a human capital attraction tool. An emerging, highly-valued amenity in the post-industrial society is nightlife. Following Florida’s reasoning on the rising salience of the creative class, this paper investigates the hypothesis that nightlife attracts high human capital or skilled individuals. It focuses on the paradigm of Greece, using data acquired by the Greek statistics agency and, to a lesser extent, the Greek yellow pages. It employs two measures, the human capital one –calculated as the percentage of the population holding a bachelor degree and above- and an approximation of Florida’s creative class measure –occupational categorization according to job complexity. Bivariate correlations are applied to account for human capital attracting factors and structural equation modelling to assess nightlife’s impact on the two measures and respectively, on regional growth.

This thesis explores the transportation-land use connection through an investigation of accessibility and residential property values. Accessibility, broadly defined as the ability for locations to interact (Hansen, 1959) is considered a key principle of urban economic theory. This project builds upon the recommendations and conclusions of the literature calling for simultaneous consideration of both the quantitative (measured) and qualitative (perceived) impacts of accessibility on residential property values. This thesis utilizes a two stage research methodology in order to investigate the influence of access to amenities on residential property values. First, accessibility is quantified via an accessibility calculation for sample properties from three study areas within the Greater Toronto Area. This calculated access value is then correlated to real property sales data in order to explore the association between access and value. Second, a survey of real estate professionals explores the influence of perception and behavioural characteristics of accessibility and amenities in the residential location decision making process. The quantitative results are statistically significant however, the association between value and access is weak and varying in direction. The qualitative results indicate consistently that homebuyers are willing to pay for access to the amenities that they value. The average value of this access premium is determined to be approximately $10,000 or 3.5% of the average price for a single-detached home in the GTA. Given the methodological challenges experienced in the quantitative measurement of access, the overall results suggest that access does in fact matter. This research contributes to the literature by considering the impact of perception and behavioural characteristics on accessibility. Further this project serves to inform the debate around transportation-land use interactions.

Population retention and growth is a concern for cities, towns, and rural municipalities across Canada, and population change is one of the best available indicators of economic prosperity and community success. As such, it is important to understand the factors driving the location decisions of Canadians, and to use this information to help communities develop strategies to ensure their longevity and to comprehend the various features influencing future prosperity. The results of this study clearly show that local community characteristics do indeed influence local population growth. Important factors include economic indicators, the presence of different types of amenities, and the proximity of the community to urban areas. <p> Previous research has been completed on the topic of community population change and amenities in other countries, but Canada has not been examined until now. This study utilizes census data at the municipality level to examine these issues. The analysis consists of an econometric model with population change as the dependent variable, and a number of local factors as the explanatory variables. In general, the results of this study complied with theoretical predictions. Communities with favourable amenities and economic factors were found to have higher population growth. Also, different age groups were found to value different bundles of amenities and economic opportunities. <p> Amenities were found to be important factors affecting population growth. Communities with higher average housing prices and lower average incomes had higher population growth. Although this is seemingly a contradictory result, it implies that amenities have been capitalized into incomes and housing prices over time and thus more than income appears to be determining the pattern of housing values across Canada; an outcome predicted by the theoretical framework of the study. Medical amenities were found to be more important for older segments of the population, though all ages valued being near large acute care hospitals. Communities with high rates of violent crime tended to have lower population growth rates. Natural amenities such as mountains and pleasant weather, and the presence of water did not consistently result in higher community population growth. <p> Economic factors such as industry diversification, high local employment rates, and growing employment prospects were very important in influencing population growth, especially among younger segments of the population. However, economic and financial opportunities do not appear to affect migration decisions of the elderly, who are influenced more by medical amenities. Except for youth, local employment opportunities were not as important as having opportunities in surrounding communities. The presence of agriculture and resource extraction sectors tended to result in lower population growth. Finally, proximity to larger urban centres and population size appeared to be beneficial for communities. <p> Overall, the results of this study provide insight for community leaders, policy makers, and others interested in the dynamics of community population change, and will help governments efficiently allocate resources to communities and form strategies to deal with declining community populations.

Market land prices ignore the non-market value of ecosystem goods and services; hence, too much agricultural land may be developed. Correct land valuation must include these non-market values. Values of ecosystem services provided by the Richland-Chambers constructed wetlands are assessed through meta-analysis to derive confidence intervals for the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for wetland services. Replacement costs are also used to estimate cost savings of creating wetlands to cleanse river water instead of constructing a conventional wastewater treatment facility. Benefit transfer is used to estimate WTP for non-market agricultural land amenities. Ecosystem services of runoff in the western and recharge in the eastern part of Comal County based on hydrological models are also calculated. Finally, seemingly unrelated regression is used to quantify the effects of growth on current agricultural land values in Texas. Using two different meta-analysis transfer functions, mean WTP for the Richland-Chambers wetlands are $843 and $999 / acre / year. Estimated 95% confidence interval is $95 to $7,435 / acre / year. This confidence interval clearly indicates the uncertainty associated with valuing ecosystem goods and services. The replacement cost of the Richland?Chambers constructed wetlands is estimated to be $1,688 / acre / year. Aggregate WTP to preserve farm and ranchland non-market amenities in Comal County is estimated to be $1,566 / acre. Using hydrologic models, the runoff is valued at $79 / acre, whereas, recharge value is $1,107 / acre. Development will cause a change in recharge, runoff, and pollution which will decrease societal welfare by $1,288 / acre. Seemingly unrelated regression results show that a percentage increase in population growth in the closest metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is associated with increases in land values of approximately $2 / acre. A one-mile increase in distance from the nearest MSA decreased land values by $4 / acre in 1997, $6 / acre in 2002, and $8 / acre in 2007. The diversity of studies illustrates that a cookbook type of methodology is not appropriate for valuing ecosystem goods and services. On the other hand, development contributes positively to land values through encroachment on agricultural lands.