Le virus de l'hépatite B (HBV) infecte chroniquement près de 240 millions d'individus dans le monde. L'infection chronique par HBV est un souci de santé publique majeur puisque l'infection peut évoluer au cours du temps vers la cirrhose et/ou l'hépatocarcinome (CHC). Malgré l'existence de traitements efficaces à base d'analogues de nucléos(t)ides permettant de diminuer la charge virale chez les patients, ceux-ci nécessitent une prise médicamenteuse à vie. En effet, malgré la diminution importante du risque de développer un cancer du foie, ces traitements ne permettent pas l'élimination définitive du virus. Les cellules infectées par HBV sont les hépatocytes du foie, qui remplissent la majorité des rôles vitaux de cet organe. La formation d'un minichromosome viral au sein de ces cellules infectées appelés ADNccc (pour ADN circulaire-covalemment-clos), est majoritairement responsable de la persistance du HBV. Les traitements actuels utilisés sont principalement des analogues de nucléos(t)ides et ceux-ci n'ont pas ou peu d'effets sur l'ADNccc. La nécessité de développer de nouvelles stratégies antivirales visant à éliminer définitivement HBV a donc conduit de nombreux laboratoires, dont le nôtre, à étudier l'utilisation de stratégies immuno-thérapeutiques incluant des stimulateurs de l'immunité innée (agonistes de TLR7, TLR8, RIG-1.) dans le cadre d'infections chroniques. De nombreuses études ont démontré que l'utilisation de ligands stimulant les récepteurs de l'immunité innée promouvait un fort effet antiviral, médié par la production endogène et locale de cytokines pro-inflammatoires et l'induction de gènes régulés par l'interféron (1SG). Dans ce but, nous nous sommes intéressés plus particulièrement aux potentiels effets antiviraux de l'agonisation des senseurs de l'immunité innée les plus connus, les Toll-like récepteurs (TLR), dans le cadre de l'infection par HBV dans les cellules hépatiques. La stratégie immuno-thérapeutique envisagée, vise à stimuler aussi bien les cellules immunitaires que les hépatocytes infectés. La caractérisation de l'expression de différents senseurs de l'immunité innée, d'une part dans les cellules primaires isolées du foie et d'autre part dans certaines lignées cellulaires correspondantes, nous a permis d'avoir une vue d'ensemble 1) des récepteurs exprimés par les différentes cellules du foie notamment dans les hépatocytes (TLR2/TLR3/TLR4/TLR5) ; 2) d'évaluer la fonctionnalité de ceux-ci pour la production de cytokines (IL-6 ; IP-10) lors de leur agonisation 3) d'évaluer les modèles disponibles parmi les lignées cellulaires les plus proches immunologiquement des cellules hépatiques. Les cellules HepaRG et une nouvelle lignée dérivée des macrophages du foie les iKC par exemple sont plus proches respectivement des hépatocytes et des macrophages primaires hépatiques et sont donc des modèles relevant pour les études immuno-thérapeutiques. L'utilisation de ligands de TLR2 et TLR3 sur des hépatocytes infectés chroniquement par HBV, a montré le plus fort effet antiviral (incluant une médiation par la sécrétion de cytokines et l'induction d'1SG) aussi bien sur la réplication d'HBV que sur l'ADNccc. De plus, cet effet semble stable au cours du temps sans résurgence massive de productions virales. Cette stratégie cible non seulement les hépatocytes infectés, mais également les cellules immunitaires dont les productions cytokiniques ont également un fort effet antiviral. Bien que l'effet in vivo, dans un modèle murin, ait été plus modeste, un ajustement des doses d'agonistes utilisées ainsi qu'un meilleur moyen de délivrance au foie de ligands de TLR2 ou TLR3 pourraient être une stratégie immuno-thérapeutique intéressante. Enfin nous nous sommes intéressés au cas particulier de l'agonisation du TLR9 en présence d'HBV… [etc] / HBV chronically infects 240 million peoples around the world. HBV chronic infection is a major public health problem and can lead to cirrhosis or/and hepatocarcinoma (HCC). Even if some efficient treatments are already available, based in particular on the use of nucleos(t)ides analogues that induce a decrease of viral load in patients, these drugs do not lead to a definitive HBV cure They enable an important decrease of liver cancer risk but need to be taken life-long. HBV infects hepatocytes the major liver cells which are involve in many vital mechanisms into the organism. The HBV minichromosome, which is formed into infected cells also called cccDNA (i.e., covalently-closed-circular DNA), is not affected by nucleos(t)ides treatments and thus is responsible for HBV persistence. The use of immune receptors (e.g. Toll-like receptors/TLR) agonists can lead to 1) an important cytokines/interferon (IFN) secretion; 2) promote immune cells activation/recruitment and 3) induction of many Interferon-Stimulated Genes (ISG). These mechanisms could lead to a greater viral clearance by cccDNA degradation or silencing. The need for new strategies to permanently eliminate HBV infection led many laboratories, including ours, to explore the use of immunotherapeutic treatments in a context of chronic infection, including innate immune stimulators (e.g. TLR7, TLR8 or RIG-I agonist are under clinical trials). To this end, we got interested on the potential anti-HBV effects of many TLR agonists in liver cells. Our strategy is to stimulate both infected hepatocytes and immune cells. We first characterized the expression of innate immune sensors in primary liver cells as well as in some liver cell lines. This allowed us to: 1) identify which sensors are expressed by liver cells, especially in hepatocytes (TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5); 2) evaluate their ability to produce cytokines (IL-6, IP-10) upon agonisation; 3) evaluation of cell lines model which are immunologically closed to the primary liver cells. HepaRG and a new liver macrophage cell line call iKC are immunologically close to their primary cells and appear to be relevant models for immune-therapeutics studies. The use of TLR2 and TLR3 agonists on HBV chronically infected hepatocytes showed a strong antiviral effect (i.e., decrease of HBV replication and cccDNA level) mediated directly by NF- kB-inducible and ISG genes activation and indirectly by cytokines secretion. Furthermore, this effect was shown stable over time without any viral replication rebound. This strategy targets not only infected hepatocytes but also immune cells, whose cytokines production also has a strong antiviral effect. Despite a weak in vivo effect in mice, a tuning in agonist doses used and better liver delivery could be an interesting immune-therapeutic strategy. Finally, we were investigated the particular case of TLR9 agonisation in presence of HBV. We showed an interaction between synthetic or not DNA ligands such as CpG ODN and HBV particles. This interaction leads in one hand, to HBV entry inhibition in hepatocytes, on the other hand, to a blockage of ligand delivery to TLR9 in pDC, which is not due to an inhibition of the TLR9 pathway, but to a lack of access of the ligand to its receptor. These two mechanisms are responsible for a decrease of viral infection during its establishment and a decrease in IFN synthesis by pDC, respectively. A decrease in IFN production, which this time was linked to a bona fide inhibition of the TLR9 pathway, in the presence of the sub-viral particles HBsAg was still observed, without retention of TLR9 ligand of the latter. It would seem, therefore, that use of TLR agonists represent an interesting strategy in setting up new anti-HBV immune-therapeutic approaches. However, their improvement will depend on the evaluation of viro-induced inhibitory mechanisms as well as better ways of in vivo delivering these ligands

This study aimed to evaluate the antiretroviral activity of natural products. Initially implemented the cell culture for cytotoxicity tests and some tests of antiviral activity. Were selected based on pre-existing data in the literature of antiviral activity in the genus or family under study and also in a chemotaxonomic approach, 39 extracts (from 12 plant families and four families of Brazilian algae) and 11 pure compounds from the group of quinones and terpenes. All were evaluated for cytotoxicity in order to find a concentration with low cytotoxicity for testing antivirals ( 50%). Cytotoxicity was evaluated by the methods of Trypan Blue exclusion and MTT reduction. The evaluation of antiviral activity was done by two methods: research on the inhibition of cytopathic effects (ECPs) characteristic of retroviruses (syncytium and lysis) using maedi visna virus which is a model in vitro and in vivo of the HIV, and inhibition of activity of reverse transcriptase (RT) of HIV-1. The activity of RT HIV-1 was measured by a colorimetric method quantitative immunoassay (Reverse Transcriptase Assay, Roche , Germany). Was first tested an extract of each plant species on the potential antiviral activity, and when it showed some activity other extracts of the same species were tested. Efavirenz was used as control and showed antiviral inhibition of CPE and TR of 75 and 98%, respectively, at a concentration of 1 μg/mL. Among the pure compounds the best results were those of emotinas D and F, which also inhibit the ECPs in 37.5 and 25% were 24.4 and 20.5% inhibition of TR, respectively, 1 μg/mL. Among the tested plants found seven with inhibitory activity of HIV-1 RT. Among these we find a plant whose activity was very high in the crude extract when compared with control efavirenz and has been even greater in isolated fractions. The crude extracts of leaves (50 μg/mL) and stem bark (100 μg/mL) showed 98 and 67% inhibition of TR, respectively. The acetate (50 μg/mL) and chloroform (100 μg/mL) fractions of the latter, showed 95 and 89% of inhibition, respectively. Our results suggest that we have strong candidates for to combat the HIV that may present as a rich source of inhibitors of RT. / Este trabalho objetivou avaliar a atividade antirretroviral de produtos naturais. Inicialmente implementamos o cultivo celular para realização de testes de citotoxicidade e alguns dos testes de atividade antiviral. Foram selecionados, baseados em dados pré-existentes na literatura de atividade antiviral no gênero ou família em estudo e ainda em uma abordagem quimiotaxonômica, 39 extratos (de 12 famílias de plantas e quatro famílias de algas brasileiras) e 11 substâncias puras do grupo das quinonas e dos terpenos. Todos foram avaliados quanto à citotoxicidade a fim de encontrarmos uma dose com baixa citotoxicidade para os testes antivirais (50%). A citotoxicidade foi avaliada pelos métodos de exclusão do Azul de Tripan e redução do MTT. A avaliação da atividade antiviral foi feita por duas metodologias: pesquisa da inibição de efeitos citopáticos (ECPs) característicos de retrovírus (sincício e lise) utilizando-se o vírus maedi visna que é um modelo in vitro e in vivo do HIV e inibição da transcriptase reversa (TR) do HIV-1. A atividade da TR do HIV-1 foi medida por um método colorimétrico quantitativo imunoenzimático (Reverse Transcriptase Assay, Roche , Germany). Foi inicialmente testado um extrato de cada espécie de planta quanto à potencial atividade antiviral e quando o mesmo mostrava alguma atividade os outros extratos da mesma espécie eram testados. O efavirenz foi utilizado como controle antiviral e apresentou 75 e 98% de inibição do ECP e da TR, respectivamente, em uma concentração de 1 μg/mL. Dentre as substâncias puras os melhores resultados encontrados foram os das emotinas D e F que além de inibirem os ECPs em 37,5 e 25%, apresentaram 24,4 e 20,5% de inibição da TR, respectivamente, a 1 μg/mL. Entre as plantas testadas encontramos sete com atividade inibidora da TR do HIV-1. Entre estas encontramos uma planta cuja atividade foi muito elevada no extrato bruto quando comparada ao controle efavirenz e tem se mostrado ainda maior nas frações isoladas. Os extratos brutos das folhas (50 μg/mL) e da casca do caule (100 μg/mL) apresentaram 98 e 67% de inibição da TR, respectivamente. E as frações acetato (50 μg/mL) e clorofórmio (100 μg/mL) deste último, 95 e 89% de inibição, respectivamente. Nossos resultados sugerem que temos fortes candidatos para o combate ao HIV que podem se apresentar como uma rica fonte de substâncias inibidoras da TR.

Natural products offer many possibilities for the treatment of disease. More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is ocean, and recent exploration and access has allowed for new additions to this catalog of natural treasures. The Central Red Sea off the coast of Saudi Arabia serves as a newly accessible location, which provides the opportunity to bioprospect marine sponges with the purpose of identifying novel antiviral scaffolds. Antivirals are underrepresented in present day clinical trials, as well as in the academic screens of marine natural product libraries. Here a high-throughput pipeline was initiated by prefacing the antiviral screen with an Image-based High-Content Screening (HCS) technique in order to identify candidates with antiviral potential. Prospective candidates were tested in a biochemical or cell-based assay for the ability to inhibit the NS3 protease of the West Nile Virus (WNV NS protease) as well as replication and reverse transcription of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1). The analytical chemistry techniques of High-Performance Liquid Chromatograpy (HPLC), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) where used in order to identify the compounds responsible for the characteristic antiviral activity of the selected sponge fractions. We have identified a 3-alkyl pyridinium from Amphimedon chloros as the causative agent of the observed WNV NS3 protease inhibition in vitro. Additionally, we identified debromohymenialdisine, hymenialdisine, and oroidin from Stylissa carteri as prospective scaffolds capable of HIV-1 inhibition.

The structure and dynamics of membranes are crucial to ensure the proper functioning of cells. There are some compounds used in therapeutics that show nonspecific interactions with membranes in addition to their specific molecular target. Among them, two compounds recently used in therapeutics against COVID-19, remdesivir and favipiravir, were subjected to molecular dynamics simulation assays. In these, we demonstrated that the compounds can spontaneously bind to model lipid membranes in the presence or absence of cholesterol. These findings correlate with the corresponding experimental results recently reported by our group. In conclusion, insertion of the compounds into the membrane is observed, with a mean position close to the phospholipid head groups.

O presente estudo realizou o sequenciamento de nova geração do vírus da hepatite C genótipo 1, incluindo os subtipos 1a (n=51) e 1b (n=49), e identificou variantes associadas com resistência (RAV) aos antivirais de ação direta em pacientes sem tratamento prévio. No subtipo 1a, foram encontradas RAV para as regiões NS3-4A, NS5A e NS5B em 10%, 22% e 8% dos pacientes, respectivamente. RAV detectadas foram: T54S (2%), V55A (2%), Q80K (4%) e R155K (2%) na protease NS3-4A; Q30H (4%), H58P (10%) e Q30H/R+Y93C/H/N (8%) na região NS5A; e A421V (8%) na polimerase NS5B. As frequências das RAV para o subtipo 1b foram 12%, 53% e 31% para as regiões NS3-4A, NS5A e NS5B, respectivamente. Foram encontradas as RAV F43I (2%), T54S (4%), Q80H (2%), D168E (2%) e M175L (2%) na região NS3-4A; L28M (2%), R30Q (2%), L31M (2%), Q54H (27%), A92T (2%), Y93H (4%), Q54H+A92T (6%), Q54H+Y93H (6%) e A92T+Y93H (2%) na região NS5A e, L159F (2%), C316N (4%), A421V (7%), L159F+C316N (9%) e S556G (9%) na polimerase. Utilizando esta metodologia, um recombinante inter-subtipo 1a/1b foi identificado. / This study performed the next-generation sequencing of the hepatitis C virus genotype 1, including subtypes 1a (n = 51) and 1b (n = 49), and identified resistance-associated variants (RAVs) to direct-acting antivirals in previously untreated patients. In subtype 1a, RAVs were found for NS3-4A, NS5A, and NS5B regions in 10%, 22% and 8% of patients, respectively. RAVs detected were: T54S (2%), V55A (2%), Q80K (4%) and R155K (2%) in NS3-4A protease; Q30H (4%), H58P (10%) and Q30H/R+Y93C/H/N (8%) in NS5A region; and A421V (8%) in NS5B polymerase. Frequencies of RAV for subtype 1b were 12%, 53% and 31% for NS3-4A, NS5A and NS5B regions, respectively. RAVs F43I (2%), T54S (4%), Q80H (2%), D168E (2%) and M175L (2%) were found in NS3-4a region; L28M (2%), R30Q (2%), L31M (2%), Q54H (27%), A92T (2%), Y93H (4%), Q54H+A92T (6%), Q54H+Y93H (6%) and A92T+Y93H (2%) in NS5A region and, L159F (2%), C316N (4%), A421V (7%), L159F+C316N (9%) and S556G (9%) in polymerase. By using this methodology, a recombinant inter-subtype 1a/1b was identified.

L’hépatite C est une maladie affectant aujourd’hui 170 millions d’individus dans le monde. Cette maladie est causée par le virus de l'hépatite C (VHC). Les nouveaux traitements récemment mis sur le marché, visant à soigner l’hépatite C, sont très onéreux et donc inaccessibles pour les pays du Sud. De plus, l’utilisation de ces nouvelles molécules engendre l’apparition de mutation de résistance virale responsable de l’échec des traitements pour 5 à 10% des patients. La découverte de nouveaux antiviraux est donc toujours indispensable. Les plantes utilisées en médecine traditionnelle depuis des siècles sont une source de composés bio-actifs très intéressante. L’utilisation de ces plantes ou de composés naturels en complément des molécules utilisées en thérapie classique, permettrait de réduire significativement le coût de ces traitements et de les rendre accessibles à davantage de patients.L’epigallocatéchine-3-gallate (EGCG) et la delphinidine sont des molécules naturelles issues respectivement du thé vert et des fruits rouges. Ces deux molécules inhibent l’étape d’entrée du VHC dans les cellules hépatocytaires. Nous avons montré que l'EGCG et la delphinidine inhibent cette étape virale dans les hépatocytes en déformant les particules et bloquant ainsi leur attachement à la surface cellulaire. Nous nous sommes ensuite intéressés au processus engendrant cette déformation qui est probablement lié à l’agrégation des glycoprotéines d’enveloppe virale.Nous avons procédé au criblage d’extraits bruts de plantes extrêmophiles tunisiennes et mis en évidence que l’extrait brut de rhizome de Juncus maritimus inhibait l’étape de réplication du VHC. Le J. maritimus est une plante fortement présente dans les sols arides en Tunisie mais également sur les côtes françaises. En collaboration avec le laboratoire de Pharmacognosie de Lille et grâce à un fractionnement bioguidé, le principe actif a pu être isolé. Il s’agit du déhydrojuncusol qui inhibe la réplication virale avec une concentration effective médiane de 1,31 µM. De plus, nous avons montré que le déhydrojuncusol pouvait inhiber la réplication de virus présentant des mutations de résistance aux traitements actuels ciblant la protéine virale NS5A. Nous avons cherché à identifier la cible virale du déhydrojuncusol et il semblerait que ce soit également la protéine NS5A.Les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse confortent l’hypothèse que des molécules naturelles pourraient être utilisées dans le traitement de l’hépatite C. / Hepatitis C is a liver disease affecting 170 million people worldwide. This disease is caused by hepatitis C virus (HCV). New treatments, recently marketed, against HCV are very expensive and not really accessible for most-infected patients especially in low-income countries. Moreover, the use of these new molecules generates the emergence of HCV resistant variants responsible for treatment failure for 5 to 10% of the patients. Therefore, the discovery of new antiviral molecules is always needed. Since centuries, plants are used in traditional medicine. They are a very attractive source of bio-active compounds. Plant extracts or natural molecules used in combination with actual therapy, could significantly reduce the cost of these new treatments and render them accessible to more patients.Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and delphinidin are natural molecules derived respectively from green tea and red berries. These two molecules inhibit HCV entry into hepatocyte cells. We have shown that this inhibition is due to a deformation of viral particles by the molecules inducing a blockade of virus attachment to the cell surface. We further investigated the process leading to this deformation, and conclude that it might be related to aggregation of viral envelope glycoproteins.We screened extracts of extremophile plants from Tunisia and showed that the crude extract of Juncus maritimus rhizome inhibited HCV replication step. J. maritimus is a plant present in arid soils in Tunisia but also in French coasts. In collaboration with the Pharmacognosy laboratory of Lille and thanks to a bioguided fractionation, the active compound present in this plant could be isolated. It was identified as dehydrojuncusol, which inhibits viral replication with a half maximal effective concentration of 1.31 μM. We have also shown that dehydrojuncusol is able to inhibit replication of viruses with resistance mutations to current treatments targeting the viral protein NS5A. We have also tried to identify the viral target of dehydrojuncusol, and it seems that the target might also be the NS5A protein.The results obtained in this thesis confirm the hypothesis that natural molecules could be used in the treatment of hepatitis C.

O presente estudo realizou o sequenciamento de nova geração do vírus da hepatite C genótipo 1, incluindo os subtipos 1a (n=51) e 1b (n=49), e identificou variantes associadas com resistência (RAV) aos antivirais de ação direta em pacientes sem tratamento prévio. No subtipo 1a, foram encontradas RAV para as regiões NS3-4A, NS5A e NS5B em 10%, 22% e 8% dos pacientes, respectivamente. RAV detectadas foram: T54S (2%), V55A (2%), Q80K (4%) e R155K (2%) na protease NS3-4A; Q30H (4%), H58P (10%) e Q30H/R+Y93C/H/N (8%) na região NS5A; e A421V (8%) na polimerase NS5B. As frequências das RAV para o subtipo 1b foram 12%, 53% e 31% para as regiões NS3-4A, NS5A e NS5B, respectivamente. Foram encontradas as RAV F43I (2%), T54S (4%), Q80H (2%), D168E (2%) e M175L (2%) na região NS3-4A; L28M (2%), R30Q (2%), L31M (2%), Q54H (27%), A92T (2%), Y93H (4%), Q54H+A92T (6%), Q54H+Y93H (6%) e A92T+Y93H (2%) na região NS5A e, L159F (2%), C316N (4%), A421V (7%), L159F+C316N (9%) e S556G (9%) na polimerase. Utilizando esta metodologia, um recombinante inter-subtipo 1a/1b foi identificado. / This study performed the next-generation sequencing of the hepatitis C virus genotype 1, including subtypes 1a (n = 51) and 1b (n = 49), and identified resistance-associated variants (RAVs) to direct-acting antivirals in previously untreated patients. In subtype 1a, RAVs were found for NS3-4A, NS5A, and NS5B regions in 10%, 22% and 8% of patients, respectively. RAVs detected were: T54S (2%), V55A (2%), Q80K (4%) and R155K (2%) in NS3-4A protease; Q30H (4%), H58P (10%) and Q30H/R+Y93C/H/N (8%) in NS5A region; and A421V (8%) in NS5B polymerase. Frequencies of RAV for subtype 1b were 12%, 53% and 31% for NS3-4A, NS5A and NS5B regions, respectively. RAVs F43I (2%), T54S (4%), Q80H (2%), D168E (2%) and M175L (2%) were found in NS3-4a region; L28M (2%), R30Q (2%), L31M (2%), Q54H (27%), A92T (2%), Y93H (4%), Q54H+A92T (6%), Q54H+Y93H (6%) and A92T+Y93H (2%) in NS5A region and, L159F (2%), C316N (4%), A421V (7%), L159F+C316N (9%) and S556G (9%) in polymerase. By using this methodology, a recombinant inter-subtype 1a/1b was identified.

Les traitements actuels contre le virus de l’hépatite B (VHB) combinent un ou plusieurs analogues de nucléos(t)ides qui inhibent directement la réplication virale en bloquant l’étape de transcription inverse. Ces traitements très efficaces sont pourtant confrontés à l’émergence de virus résistants à ces traitements. Ces résistances sont la conséquence de l’émergence et la sélection de mutants parfois complexes présentant des mutations à la fois dans le gène de la polymérase (pol) et de l’enveloppe virale. Les objectifs principaux de ce doctorat ont été d’étudier la sensibilité des variants résistants du VHB vis-à-vis d’analogues de nucléos(t)ides et de nouveaux composés nonnucléos(t)idiques agissant contre la nucléocapside, mais également de comparer les performances virales de différents mutants afin de comprendre le processus de sélection des mutants qui s’opère chez le patient sous pression thérapeutique. Ces études ont caractérisé la sensibilité de certaines mutations de résistance aux analogues de nucléos(t)ides, de souligner l’importance des modifications de l’enveloppe dues aux mutations de résistance dans le processus d’émergence et de sélection des variants dans la quasi-espèce virale et d’identifier de nouvelles molécules antivirales efficaces permettant, en combinaison avec les analogues de nucléos(t)ide, de diminuer fortement les phénomènes de résistance du VHB. Mieux comprendre les phénomènes de résistance, les procédés d’émergence, de sélection et de transmission des mutants du VHB pour élaborer les meilleures stratégies cliniques de combinaisons thérapeutiques peut réduire considérablement le nombre de personnes touchées par ce virus / Current therapies against the hepatitis B virus (HBV) combine one or more nucleoside analogues that directly inhibit viral replication by blocking reverse transcription step. These treatments are very effective, however, faced with the emergence of viruses resistant to these treatments. These resistances are the result of the emergence and selection of mutants with mutations can be complex in both the polymerase gene (pol) and the viral envelope. The main objectives of this PhD was to study the sensitivity of resistant HBV variants vis-à-vis similar nucleos(t)ides and new compounds non-nucleos(t)idic acting against the nucleocapsid, but also compare the performance of different viral mutants to understand the process of selection of mutants that occurs in patients under therapeutic pressure. These studies have characterized the sensitivity of some resistance mutations to nucleoside analogues, to highlight the importance of the envelope changes due to resistance mutations in the process of emergence and selection of variants in the quasispecies virus and to identify new effective antiviral drugs may allow, in combination with nucleoside analogues, to greatly reduce the phenomenon of HBV resistance. Better understanding the phenomenon of resistance, the processes of emergence, selection and transmission of HBV mutants to develop the best clinical strategies of combination therapy can significantly reduce the number of people affected by this virus

En dépit d’épidémies répétées, il n’existe pas à ce jour de thérapeutique ayant démontré son efficacité dans la maladie à virus Ebola. Sur la base d’expérimentations réalisées chez la souris et le macaque dans le cadre du consortium Reaction!, l’objectif de cette thèse visait à caractériser l’effet d’une molécule antivirale, le favipiravir, via l’implémentation de modèles mathématiques mécanistiques de l’infection et de la réponse immunitaire associée. L’approche utilisée pour construire ces modèles et en estimer les paramètres reposait sur les modèles non linéaires à effets mixtes. Un premier travail a permis d’explorer la relation concentration-effet sur la charge virale plasmatique chez la souris. Le second projet a conduit à caractériser la pharmacocinétique non linéaire dose et temps dépendante du favipiravir chez le macaque, en vue d’identifier les schémas posologiques pertinents pour la réalisation des études d’efficacité chez l’animal infecté. Au décours de leur réalisation, l’intégration des données virologiques et immunitaires générées au sein d’un modèle conjoint a permis de caractériser un effet modéré du favipiravir sur la réplication virale, mais suffisant pour limiter le développement d’une réaction inflammatoire délétère, et ainsi améliorer le taux de survie des animaux traités. Les simulations réalisées avec ce modèle ont pu souligner l’impact déterminant du délai d’initiation du traitement sur la survie. Ces résultats incitent à la poursuite de l’évaluation clinique du favipiravir, en favorisant des essais de prophylaxie ou post exposition. Enfin, un dernier travail a démontré l’absence de potentialisation du favipiravir par la ribavirine dans Ebola. / In spite of recurrent outbreaks, no therapeutics with demonstrated clinical efficacy are available in Ebola virus disease. Based on experimentations performed by Reaction! Consortium in mice and macaques, this thesis aimed to characterize the effect of an antiviral drug, favipiravir, using mechanistic mathematical models of the infection and associated immune response. The approach to build models and estimate parameters relied on nonlinear mixed effect models. The first project of this thesis explored the concentration-effect relationship on the viremia in mice. Then, a second project allowed to characterize the pharmacokinetics of favipiravir in macaques, underlying dose and time non linearity, and to identify relevant dosing regimen for efficacy experiments in infected animals. Once these experiments completed, the integration of the virological and immunological data into a mechanistic joint model shed light on the effect of favipiravir. The moderate inhibition of the viral replication resulting from the favipiravir plasma concentrations was enough to limit the development of a deleterious inflammatory response, and thus improve the survival rate of treated macaques. Simulations performed with this model underlined the crucial impact of the treatment initiation delay on survival. These results encourage the pursuit of the clinical evaluation of favipiravir in prophylaxis or post exposure trials. Finally, a last project demonstrated the lack of benefit of ribavirin addition to favipiravir in Ebola virus disease.

First part of this thesis was focused on the previously overlooked field of C1'-branched acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs). Five diverse synthetic approaches were developed/optimized affording key 6-chloropurine intermediates bearing N9 -phosphonomethoxyethyl (PME) branched at C1' position in 2-4 steps. It was demonstrated that these intermediates can be further vastly diversified into ANPs bearing both natural and unnatural nucleobases. Single enantiomers as well as racemates of final C1'-branched ANPs (overall 48 final compounds) were prepared and selected compounds were evaluated with respect to their biological properties. The aforementioned ANPs showed no antiviral potency against studied viruses and only weak to moderate cytostatic activity. Adenine C1'-branched ANPs proved to be the most potent currently known inhibitors of Trypanosoma brucei adenine phosphoribosyl transferase (TbrAPRT), an enzyme involved in purine salvage pathway (PSP) of T. brucei. Further biological evaluation of prepared compounds is in progress. Second part of this thesis was focused on development of novel prodrug moieties with higher selectivity index (i.e. toxicity/potency ratio - SI) based on so-called ProTide prodrugs where phenol (present in ProTides) was replaced by tyrosine derivatives. Tenofovir was...