A tetrazole is a 5-membered ring containing 4 nitrogens and 1 carbon. Due to its energetic potential and structural similarity to carboxylic acids, this ring system has a wide number of applications. In this thesis, a new and safe sustainable process to produce tetrazoles was designed that acheived high yields under mild conditions. Also, a technique was developed to form a trityl-protected tetrazole in situ. The rest of this work involved the exploitation of the energetic potential of tetrazoles. This moiety was successfully applied in polymers, ionic liquids, foams, and gels. The overall results from these experiments illustrate the fact that tetrazoles have the potential to serve as a stable alternative to the troublesome azido group common in many energetic materials. Due to these applications, the tetrazole moiety is a very important entity.

Hydrazine and monomethylhydrazine are widely used as propellants in aerospace and defense industries. However these chemicals are volatile, carcinogenic, and sensitive to impact, which impose serious threats during their usage. In this thesis, we have demonstrated two novel ways to immobilize hydrazine chemicals. In one approach hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine have been gelled using carbon dioxide. Chemical and structural properties of these gels are studied by NMR (1H, 15N, 13C), diffusion-ordered NMR spectroscopy, and Cryo-HRSEM. Thermal reversibility of these gels is also demonstrated. In another approach, hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine and 1,1-dimethylhydrazine are reacted with 5-methyltetrazole to form ionic liquids. Synthesis of novel tetrazole monomers and polymers, .and new method for encapsulating sodium azide have also reported in this thesis

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2005. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 164-174).

Design and Development of Carbon-Carbon and Carbon-Heteroatom Bond Forming Reactions” is divided into two sections. Section-A, contains two chapters, describes the catalytic ability of iodine for cross coupling reactions. Section-B, divided into three chapters, presents the azidation of organic scaffolds under oxidative conditions. Section A Chapter 1 presents a C-H functionalization of tetrahydroisoquinolines using iodine as a catalyst under aerobic conditions.1 This methodology employs Cross Dehydrogenative Coupling (CDC) strategy as a key step, which is highly atom economical as it doesn’t require pre-functionalized starting materials.2 Owing to the importance of tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety which is present in the umpteen natural products, considerable attention has been put up to functionalize tetrahydroisoquinoline scaffold.3 Iodine a non-metal which is non-toxic was found to catalyze the C-H functionalization of tetrahydroisoquinolines with a variety of nucleophiles such as coumarin, alkyl phosphite, phenols, indoles, acetone and dialkyl malonoates were coupled to it. Significant mechanistic study has been carried out to find the possible intermediate and support the mechanistic proposal. A few representative examples are highlighted in Scheme 1.1 Synopsis Scheme 1: A CDC coupling of tetrahydroisoquinoline with variety of nucleophiles Chapter 2 describes the Cross Hetero Dehydrogenative Coupling (CHDC) reactions of amines, alcohols and sulfoximines with various phosphites.4 Phosphoramidates and phosphate esters are structural scaffolds that are present in a variety of biologically active molecules.5 The conventional methods for synthesizing phosphoramidates/phosphate esters largely involve treating alcohol/amine with appropriate phosphorus halides which generates stoichiometric amount of halogen waste.6 Due to the usage of stoichiometric reagents and difficulties associated with the reported methods, there is a need for developing a protocol which is catalytic and mild. Therefore, we developed a method which employs catalytic amount of iodine and aq. H2O2 as a sole oxidant under milder conditions. Using this methodology, variety of phosphoramidates, phosphorous triesters and sulfoximine derived Synopsis Scheme 2: Phosphorylation of amines, alcohols and sulfoximines phosphoramidates have been synthesized with great efficiency and environmentally benign conditions. A few representative examples are highlighted in Scheme 2.4 Section B Chapter 1 of Section B demonstrates a mild way of synthesizing quaternary azides from α-substituted active methylene compounds which will serve as surrogates for several unnatural amino acid derivatives.7 Azidation has emerged as one of the efficient methods to introduce nitrogen atom in to the organic molecules.8 Azides are versatile functional groups which can be converted to amine, amide, and nitro compounds by simple modification. Moreover, azides are potential handle for “click” chemistry and provide late stage modifications in drug candidates, biomolecules and polymers, etc.9 Azidation of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds is challenging, as both azides and 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds are nucleophilic in nature. In this section of the thesis, azidation of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds has been carried out using tetrabutyl ammonium iodide (TBAI) as a catalyst, aq. TBHP as an oxidant and TMSN3 as a azide source. This method uses water as a solvent under mild reaction conditions to generate Synopsis quaternary azides in good to excellent yields. This operationally simple, practical, mild and green method provides an opportunity for synthesizing a variety of azidated β-keto esters, amides and ketones in good yields, Scheme 3.7 The application of this methodology has been demonstrated by synthesising a few triazole and pyrazolone derivatives. Scheme 3: Azidation of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds Chapter 2 of Section B comprises the azidation and peroxidation of β-napthol derivatives using dearomatization strategy. Azidation and peroxidation are efficient ways to introduce nitrogen and oxygen into organic molecules, which serve as surrogates for amines and alcohol functional groups. In the present study, the azidative or peroxidative dearomatization of naphthol derivatives have been described. The azidation of β-napthol derivatives has been achieved by using CuBr (5 mol %) as a catalyst, TMSN3 as an azide source and aq. TBHP as an oxidant. Whereas, the peroxidation β-napthol derivatives has been accomplished using CuBr (5 mol %) in the presence of aq. TBHP at ambient reaction conditions.10 The products obtained are naphthalenone derivatives, which serve as valuable Synopsis synthetic intermediates and has potential handle for further functionalization.11 Several α-amino or α-peroxy naphthalenones are synthesized using this method in good yields. The usefulness of the methodology has been illustrated by synthesizing a few chiral azides and peroxides in good yields and with moderate enantioselectivity Scheme 4.10 Scheme 4: Dearomatizative azidation and peroxidation of 2-naphthols Chapter 3 reveals the azidation of indole at C-2 position by employing CuBr (10 mol %) as a catalyst and aq. TBHP as an oxidant in acetonitrile under reflux conditions (Scheme 5).12 The C-H functionalization of indole at C-2 position is one of pivotal methods, since it paves a way for synthesizing a variety of indolo-alkaloids.13 Azide is a versatile functionality which can be converted to several other nitrogen containing functional groups such as Synopsis Scheme 5: Azidation of indoles amine, amide, triazole, etc.9 A variety of functional groups were tolerated under the reaction conditions, and furnished the azidated product in good to excellent yields. Through radical inhibition study, we presume that the reaction may be proceeding through radical mechanism. In Scheme 5, a few representative examples are depicted.

Cette thèse portera sur le développement de nouvelles méthodologies photochimiques utilisant la chimie en flux continu. Les travaux présentés au chapitre 2 décrivent l’utilisation d’un photocatalyseur à base de fer(II) pour la synthèse de carbazoles substitués. La cyclisation de diaryles et triarylamines a été effectuée en utilisant le système catalytique [Fe(phen)3](NTf2)2/O2 avec des rendements variants entre 63 et 91 %. La technologie de chimie en flux continu a permis d’entreprendre l’étude de l’agrandissement d’échelle de cette réaction photochimique. La technique de « numbering-up » a permis de diminuer de moitié le temps du procédé pour former un gramme du produit final. Le chapitre 3 porte sur le développement d’un nouveau réacteur photochimique composé de DELs mauves. Ce photoréacteur permet d’effectuer la décomposition d’azotures aromatiques pour fournir des hétérocycles azotés de type carbazoles, indoles et pyrroles. Plus de 21 exemples ont été synthétisés avec des rendements entre 33 à 95 %. De plus, des carbazoles comportant un lien carbone-halogène ont été synthétisés sans bris de lien ce qui peut être utilisé comme levier synthétique dans un processus multi-étapes. Finalement, le chapitre 4 présente les travaux incorporant la réaction de photodécomposition d’azotures développée au chapitre 3 dans un processus multi-étapes en flux continu (post-fonctionnalisation). La synthèse de dérivés de la Clausine C a été étudiée en utilisant la photodécompostion d’azotures fournissant un dérivé bromé qui peut être par la suite transformé via un couplage croisé de Suzuki. Ce type de processus multi-étapes a permis d’élaborer une librairie de huit dérivés de la Clausine C avec des rendements globaux allant de 36 à 74 % (sur 2 étapes). De plus, le premier processus multi-étapes incorporant deux transformations photochimiques subséquentes a été étudié en utilisant un couplage métallophotorédox permettant la formation de lien Csp2-Csp3. Le dérivé benzylique de la Clausine C a été synthétisé avec un rendement total de 39 % (sur 2 étapes). / This thesis will focus on the development of new photochemical methodologies using continuous flow chemistry. The work presented in Chapter 2 describes the use of an iron(II) photocatalyst for the synthesis of substituted carbazoles. The cyclization of diaryls and triarylamines was carried out using the [Fe(phen)3](NTf2)2/O2 catalyst system with yields varying between 63 and 91 %. Continuous flow chemistry technology has made it possible to undertake the study of the scale-up of this photochemical reaction. The numbering-up technique reduced by half the process time to form one gram of final product. Chapter 3 deals with the development of a new photochemical reactor composed of purple LEDs. This photoreactor makes it possible to carry out the decomposition of aromatic azide to provide heterocycles like carbazoles, indoles and pyrroles. More than 21 examples were synthesized with yields from 33 to 95 %. In addition, carbazoles having a carbon-halogen bond have been synthesized without bond breakage which can be used as a synthetic handle in a multi-step process. Finally, Chapter 4 presents the work incorporating the azide photodecomposition reaction developed in Chapter 3 into a multi-step continuous flow process (post-functionalization). Clausine C derivatives synthesis was investigated using the azide photodecomposition providing a brominated derivative that can be subsequently transformed upon Suzuki cross-coupling. This type of multi-step process has made it possible to develop a library of eight Clausine C derivatives with overall yields ranging from 36 to 74 % (over 2 steps). In addition, the first multi-step process incorporating two subsequent photochemical transformations was studied using a metallophotoredox coupling to form a Csp2-Csp3 bond. The synthesis of the benzyl derivative of Clausine C was obtained with a total yield of 39 % (over 2 steps).

The thesis describes synthesis and reactions of allene azides tethered to various functional groups and the application of the discovered cascade transformations towards the synthesis of radianspene J model system. Chapter 1 covers reactions of simple allene azides containing alkyl and cycloalkyl substituents. Thermal rearrangements of these substrates delivered isocyanides and azadienes via the proposed azatrimethylenemethane (ATMM) intermediates. On the other hand, vinylidenecyclopropanes (VDCPs) gave dramatically different products, as described in Chapter 2. A phenyl-substituted VDCP was transformed into an unstable polycyclic compound by a divinylcyclopropane rearrangement. Chapter 3 discusses allene azides tethered to furan, N-substituted pyrroles, and E- and Z-dienes. Depending on the structure of the starting material, products of formal (3+4)- or (2+3)-cycloaddition were formed. Finally, an application of the discovered cyclisation cascade towards total synthesis is described in Chapter 4. A model system of radianspene J was assembled using a key transannular cycloaddition of a macrocyclic allene.

Nous avons développé une stratégie de synthèse basée sur la cycloaddition 1,3‐dipolaire catalysée par le Cu(I) pour la préparation de LCPs et LCEs. Nous avons considéré deux approches. La première consiste en l’élaboration des monomères (protomésogènes) portant des fonctionnalités alcynes terminaux et des molécules portant des groupements azurés suivi de leur réaction selon un procédé en une seule étape. Dans la seconde approche, la formation du "protomésogène" se fait in situ lors de la réaction de cycloaddition (polymerisation) à partir de blocs complémentaires portant des fonctionnalités alcynes et azurés. Tous les composés synthétisés ont été caractérisés par des techniques classiques d'analyses chimiques ou physiques (élastomères). Dans tous les cas, les analyses thermiques (ATG et DSC) ont été menées afin de déterminer l’existence de mésophases et la stabilité des produits, et le cas échéant, les propriétés mésomorphes ont été analysées par POM et SAXS. / In this work we have developed a new strategy based on the Cu(I)‐catalyzed 1,3‐dipolar cycloaddition between azides and alkynes for the preparation of a variety of LCPs and LCEs. Two approaches are presented. The first one consists in clicking together appropriate alkyne‐difunctionalized potential mesogens with azide‐difunctionalized spacers (polymers) and crosslinker (elastomers) in a one‐pot procedure. In an alternative approach, the potential mesogens are formed in situ during the polymerization procedure by cliking prefunctionalized building blocks bearing alkyne and azide functions. All of the samples were chemically or physically (elastomers) characterized by typical analysis. Their thermal behavior was investigated by using techniques such as ATG and DSC and where necessary (mesomorphic materials) by using POM and SAXS.

Ce travail est consacré au développement d’une nouvelle méthode de synthèse d’analogues bioactifs de protéinesen utilisant des réactions successives de cycloaddition entre les alcynes terminaux et les azotures (CuAAC).Pour pouvoir effectuer des cycloadditions itératives, nous avons étudié la stabilité et les conditions de coupure dedifférents groupements masquants des alcynes terminaux. Cette étude a été valorisée par le développement d’unestratégie originale pour réaliser un triple cycloaddition successive une même molécule basée sur la protectiontemporaire de la fonction alcyne.La méthode a été appliquée à la synthèse d'un analogue de la stéfine A humaine, un inhibiteur naturel deprotéases à cystéine d’intérêt thérapeutique. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point des conditions de CuAACsuccessive compatibles avec des peptides déprotégés de façon beaucoup à obtenir in fine un analogue bis-triazolede la stéfine A. Les études par dichroïsme circulaire et d’inhibition de diverses protéases à cystéines confirmentque notre analogue synthétique conserve la structure et l’activité biologique de la protéine native.La stratégie de ligation triazole successive a été étendue par la mise au point de conditions pour réaliser desligations sur phase solide. La méthodologie développée permet la synthèse de protéines de façon plus rapide etplus simple que par des procédés classiques de ligation successive en solution. Dans l’optique de la synthèse destructures glycopeptidiques capables d’induire une réponse immunitaire contre MUC1 tumorale, nous avons réaliséla synthèse d’analogues peptidiques de MUC1 par ligation successive sur phase solide de 160 acides aminés. / The aim of this work was the development of a novel method for the synthesis of triazolo-proteins by multiplesuccessive copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloadditions (CuAAC).In order to achieve several successive cycloadditions, we have studied the stability and cleavage conditions ofseveral alkyne protective groups. This study leaded us to the development of an original strategy in order toachieve three successive cycloadditions on a same scaffold by temporal protection of alkyne functionalities.The method has been applied to the synthesis of an analogue of human stefin A, a natural inhibitor of severaltherapeutically relevant cysteine proteases. Therefore, we have developed CuAAC conditions compatible withunprotected peptide ligation. The strategy allowed us to obtain a bis-triazolo analogue of human stefin A. Circulardichroism and enzymology assays on several cysteine cathepsins revealed that the synthetic analogue hasretained the folding and full biological activity of the native protein.In order to expand the possibilities of this strategy, we have developed reaction conditions allowing us to performsuccessive triazole ligation on solid phase. This methodology avoids the need for a time-consuming and laborintensivepurification step before and after each ligation. With the aim of exploring the use of analogues of thetumor-associated form of the glycoprotein MUC1 to induce a specific immune response, we have synthesized atriazolo-analogue of MUC1 of 160 aminoacids using solid phase peptide ligation.

<div>The first chapter reports a study of aryl nitrene intermediates. Although extensively studied over the past 30 years, phenyl nitrenes have a propensity to undergo rearrangement reactions and form polymeric tars. This is in stark contrast to the phenyl carbenes which are known to undergo several important reactions to produce a library of useful organic compounds. One such reaction is the insertion of phenyl carbenes into a double bond to produce a cyclopropane moiety. If aryl nitrenes can be exploited to conjure a similar reactivity, they would be an excellent synthetic route to produce aziridine rings which are a crucial component of many natural products. This review chapter is a collection of all the efforts that have been made in this regard.</div><div><br></div><div>In the next chapter, the electronic effect of the azide functional group on an aromatic system has been investigated by using Hammett-Taft parameters obtained from the effect of azide-substitution on the gas-phase acidity of phenol. Gas-phase acidities of 3- and 4-azidophenol have been measured by using mass spectrometry and the kinetic method and found to be 340.8 ± 2.2 and 340.3 ± 2.0 kcal/mol respectively. The relative electronic effects of the azide substituent on an aromatic system have been measured by using Hammett-Taft parameters. The σF and σR values are determined to be 0.38 and 0.02 respectively, consistent with predictions based on electronic structure calculations. The values of σF and σR demonstrate that azide acts an inductively withdrawing group but has negligible resonance contribution on the phenol. In contrast, acidity values calculated for substituted benzoic acids gives values of σF = 0.69 and σR = -0.39, indicating that the azide is a strong  donor, comparable to that of a hydroxyl group. The difference is explained as being the result of “chimeric” electronic behavior of the azide, similar to that observed previously for the n-oxide moiety, which can be more or less resonance donating depending on the electronic effects of other groups in the system.</div><div><br></div><div>Phenyl nitrenes undergo bimolecular chemistry under very specific circumstances. For example, having an oxide substituent at the para position of the phenyl ring enables the formation of an indophenol product from a photocatalyzed reaction of the nitrene. Although, this reaction has been reported before, the mechanism involved in this reaction has not been fully understood. A two-electron mechanism involving electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction has been proposed in the literature, however we found evidence that did not support this theory. Instead, we find this reaction analogous to the popular Gibbs’ reaction whose single electron transfer mechanism has been extensively studied. The following chapter encompasses a study of the mechanism of the photolysis reaction to look for evidence of a single electron transfer similar to the Gibbs’ reaction.</div><div><br></div><div>As mentioned earlier, phenyl nitrenes have a proclivity to undergo rearrangement reactions instead of exhibiting bimolecular reactivity that can lead to useful products. One of the strategies to overcome this challenge is to spatially separate the two electrons of an open-shell singlet nitrene so as to minimize electron-electron repulsion. This separation can be achieved by delocalizing the individual electrons over multiple aromatic rings and heteroatoms which can act as radical stabilizers. In this chapter, a short review of literature that sets precedence for developing a unique heteroatom containing aromatic backbone to achieve the necessary stabilization is presented. Our efforts in synthesizing the model azide precursor compound have also been discussed.</div>

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