Die Bcl-2-Familienmitglieder A1 und sein humanes Homolog Bfl-1 gewährleisten das Überleben der Zelle. Gleichzeitig trägt eine Dysregulation der Expression von A1/ Bfl-1 zur Krebsentstehung bei. Die Stabilität von A1/ Bfl-1 wird durch deren Ubiquitinylierung sowie die anschließende proteosomale Degradation gesteuert. Mit Hilfe eines Yeast-Two-Hybrid-Screens wurde die E3-Ubiquitinligase HectD1 als potentieller Interaktionspartner von A1/ Bfl-1 identifiziert. Die Interaktion von A1 und HectD1 des Yeast-Two-Hybrid-Screens konnte in Säugerzellen bestätigt werden. Desweiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass lediglich 87 Aminosäuren für eine Interaktion von HectD1 und A1 nötig sind. Da membrangebundenes HectD1 zu einer Translokation von zytosolischem A1 an die Zellmembran führt, kann man davon ausgehen, dass beide Proteine auch in vivo miteinander interagieren. Eine dominant negative HectD1-Mutante schließlich beeinflusst die Ubiqutinylierung von A1 und führt somit zu dessen Stabilisierung. Diese Daten legen nahe, dass HectD1 ein wichtiger negativer Regulator von A1/ Bfl-1 ist und dass HectD1 für die Regulierung der A1/ Bfl-1-Proteinmenge in (Krebs)zellen sehr wichtig ist. / The Bcl-2 family members A1 and its human orthologue Bfl-1 support survival of cells. Dysregulation of their expression contributes to cancer. Stability of A1/ Bfl-1 is controlled by ubiquitination followed by degradation via the proteasome. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen we identified the E3 ubiquitin-ligase HectD1 as potential A1/ Bfl-1-interacting partner. We confirmed interaction of these two proteins in mammalian cells. Only 87 amino acids of HectD1 are necessary for the interaction of the protein with A1. Membrane-bound HectD1 recruits A1 to the membranes further supporting the notion that the two proteins interact in vivo. Importantly, dominant negative versions of HectD1 interfered with ubiquitination of A1 stabilizing the protein. These findings indicate that HectD1 maybe an important negative regulator of the A1/ Bfl-1 anti-apoptotic protein, providing an important target for interfering with dysregulation of A1/ Bfl-1 in cancer.

Η απόπτωση ή προγραμματισμένος κυτταρικός θάνατος είναι ένα φαινόμενο στρατηγικής σημασίας για την ανάπτυξη, διαφοροποίηση και διατήρηση της ακεραιότητος ενός ιστού. Είναι πλέον γνωστό όμως ότι τόσο η υπέρμετρη όσο και η ανεπαρκής ενεργοποίηση των αποπτωτικών μηχανισμών μπορούν να οδηγήσουν στην εκδήλωση διαφόρων παθήσεων. Η απόπτωση χαρακτηρίζεται από συγκεκριμένες μορφολογικές και βιοχημικές μεταβολές ενώ η ρύθμισή της ελέγχεται γενετικά μέσω της εκφράσεως ή καταστολής διαφόρων ογκογονιδίων. Ιδιαίτερη σημασία για την ρύθμιση της αποπτώσεως έχουν τα γονίδια της οικογένειας του bcl-2. Συγκεκριμένα το bcl-2 και το bcl-xL καταστέλλουν την απόπτωση ενώ το bax την προάγει. Η ψωρίαση είναι μία χρόνια υποτροπιάζουσα φλεγμονώδης δερματοπάθεια η οποία προσβάλλει ποσοστό 1%-3% του γενικού πληθυσμού. Η ψωρίαση κατά πλάκας αποτελεί την συχνότερη μορφή της νόσου, η οποία χαρακτηρίζεται από την εμφάνιση σε γενετικώς προδιατεθειμένα άτομα, ερυθηματολεπιδωδών πλακών με σαφή αφορισμό από το πέριξ υγιές δέρμα. Χαρακτηρίζεται από έντονη υπερπλασία της επιδερμίδος, μειωμένη ωρίμανση των κερατινοκυττάρων, φλεγμονώδη διήθηση στην επιδερμίδα (CD8+) και το χόριο (CD4+) και νεοαγγειογένεση. Πρωταρχικό ρόλο στην έναρξη και διατήρηση των ψωριασικών αλλοιώσεων παίζουν τα Τ- λεμφοκύτταρα, τα οποία εκκρίνουν πληθώρα κυτταροκινών Τh1 τύπου. Παρά τα σημαντικά βήματα προόδου που έχουν γίνει τα τελευταία χρόνια στην έρευνα της ψωριάσεως, η παθογένεια της νόσου αυτής παραμένει ακόμα αδιευκρίνιστη. Τα κύτταρα της ψωριασικής επιδερμίδας αποτελούν έναν από τους ταχύτερα αναπτυσσόμενους και πολλαπλασιαζόμενους κυτταρικούς πληθυσμούς του ανθρώπινου οργανισμού. Θεωρητικά τουλάχιστον, η ακάνθωση της ψωριασικής επιδερμίδος θα μπορούσε να προκύπτει όχι μόνο από την αυξημένη μιτωτική δραστηριότητα των κερατινοκυττάρων αλλά επίσης και από έναν μειωμένο κυτταρικό θάνατο στις ζώσες στιβάδες της επιδερμίδος. Συμπερασματικά, στην παρούσα εργασία διαπιστώθηκε ότι υπό αγωγή και με τα δύο θεραπευτικά σχήματα επέρχεται ομαλοποίηση της εκφράσεως της bcl-2 στην ψωριασική διατυπωθεί η υπόθεση ότι τα ευρήματα της παρούσης εργασίας σε σχέση με αυτές τις δύο πρωτεΐνες συνδέονται με την υποστροφή των ψωριασικών αλλοιώσεων και όχι με τους μηχανισμούς θεραπευτικής δράσεως των χορηγηθέντων φαρμάκων. Τόσο υπό ασιτρετίνη όσο και υπό ανθραλίνη + καλσιποτριόλη παρατηρήθηκε μια σημαντική μείωση της εκφράσεως της πρωτεΐνης bcl-x στα κύτταρα της ακανθωτής στιβάδος της ψωριασικής επιδερμίδος. Το εύρημα αυτό σε συνδυασμό με την αντιαποπτωτική δράση της πρωτεΐνης bcl-x στην ψωριασική επιδερμίδα έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία, αφού η μείωση της εκφράσεως της πρωτεΐνης αυτής υπό θεραπεία ίσως να συμμετέχει στους μηχανισμούς αντιψωριασικής δράσεως των χορηγηθέντων φαρμάκων αφού συνεπάγεται την είσοδο των ψωριασικών κερατινοκυττάρων στην απόπτωση. / Apoptosis or programmed cell death is a phenomenon of crucial importance for the growth, differentiation and maintenance of the integrity of tissues. However, it is well known that excessive or insufficient activation of apoptotic mechanisms can lead to the clinical manifestation of various diseases. Apoptosis is characterized by specific morphological and biochemical alterations, whereas its regulation is genetically determined by the induction or suppression of various oncogenes. Regulatory control of apoptosis is achieved through mechanisms in which proteins encoded by the bcl-2 gene family are involved. Thus, bcl-2 and bcl-xL inhibit the apoptotic process, whereas bax is a proapoptotic protein. Psoriasis is a chronic relapsing inflammatory genodermatosis affecting 1%-3% of general population. Plaque-type psoriasis, the most common form of the disease, is clinically characterized by the appearance of well-circumscribed erythematosquamous lesions in genetically predisposed individuals. On light microscopy, psoriatic lesions reveal marked acanthosis, incomplete maturation of keratinocytes, inflammatory infiltration of the dermis (CD4+) and the epidermis (CD8+) and enhanced angiogenesis. The role of T-cell-mediated immune mechanisms in the triggering of the disease is of particular importance. Despite the considerable progress in the research on various aspects of psoriasis, the pathogenesis of this disorder still remains unclear. Psoriatic keratinocytes represent one of the most rapidly developing and proliferating cellular populations of human body. Theoretically, acanthosis of psoriatic epidermis may have been caused from both, keratinocyte hyperproliferation and decreased cell death in the living epidermal layers. In the present study a normalization of bcl-2 protein expression was observed in psoriatic epidermis under both types of treatment. After 3 and 6 weeks of treatment, the reduction in the expression of bax in the spinous layer of psoriatic epidermis was higher under acitretin, as compared to that seen under topical application of anthralin + calcipotriol, as compared to the pretreatment status. Taking into account the limited differences in the expression of bcl-2 and bax proteins between the two groups (with the intensity of staining inside the normal limits), as well as the apparent absense of contributory role of bcl-2 and bax proteins in the regulation of the apoptosis of psoriatic keratinocytes, we can suppose that the findings of the present study are related to the regression of psoriatic lesions and not to the therapeutic action of the drugs used. Under both therapeutic regimens bcl-x immunoreactivity was reduced in the spinous layer of psoriatic epidermis. This finding, in combination with the antiapoptotic action of bcl-x protein in psoriatic epidermis, is of particular importance since the reduction in the expression of this protein under treatment is possibly implicated in the mechanisms of therapeutic action of these drugs.

Thèse (Ph. D.)--Université Laval, 2005. / Titre de l'écran-titre (visionné le 18 sept. 2007). Bibliogr.

Thèse (M.Sc.)--Université Laval, 2004. / Titre de l'écran-titre (visionné le 29 novembre 2004). Bibliogr.

Abstract Apoptosis is a biochemically regulated mechanism leading to the destruction of an individual cell. An inadequate apoptosis is partly responsible for uncontrolled survival of malignantly transformed cells and formation of cancer. The growth of a tumor depends on the proliferative capacity and destruction of tumor cells either through apoptosis or necrosis. In this work, the extent of apoptosis and the expression of apoptosis-regulating proteins were studied by 3'-end labeling of fragmented DNA (TUNEL) and immunohistochemistry in a set of 166 tissue samples consisting of 33 HCCs, 39 gallbladder carcinomas, 7 gallbladder dysplasias and 87 pancreatic carcinomas. In addition, p53 protein and P-glycoprotein expression was studied immunohistochemically. The extent of apoptosis was estimated by using apoptotic index, defined as a percentage of apoptotic cells in the entire tumor cell population. The present results show an average apoptotic index of 0.73% in HCC, 0.68% in gallbladder and 0.69% in pancreatic carcinoma. Bcl-2 positivity was found in only 3% of the HCCs, 10% of gallbladder and 13% of pancreatic carcinomas. Bax positivity was seen in all of the gallbladder and pancreatic carcinoma cases. Mcl-1 positivity was found in 87% of gallbladder and 86% of pancreatic tumors. The apoptotic index in bcl-2 positive cases was lower (0.35%) than in cases showing no immunoreactivity (0.64%) in pancreatic tumors (P = 0.013). Apoptotic index was higher in pancreatic tumors with strong bax immunoreactivity (0.70%) than in other cases (0.34%) (P = 0.002). Caspase 3, 6 and 8 expression was found in 92%, 92% and 73% of HCC, 95%, 77% and 77% of gallbladder carcinoma and 80%, 80% and 74% of pancreatic carcinoma cases, respectively. p53 positivity was found in 23% of hepatocellular, 57% of gallbladder and 41% of pancreatic carcinomas. P-glycoprotein was observed in 65% of the HCCs. Patients with Pgp positive tumors had a significantly shorter disease-free interval than those with Pgp negative tumors (P < 0.05). To evaluate the growth potential of HCC and pancreatic carcinoma, a growth index from the scores obtained for apoptosis, necrosis and cell proliferation was designed. Patients with a high degree of proliferation relative to the degree of necrosis and apoptosis (i.e. had a positive growth index) in HCC lesions had a significantly shorter survival (P = 0.004) and disease-free interval after operation (P = 0.019) than those with a tumor predominated by apoptosis and necrosis. Results were in line with HCC in pancreatic carcinoma, but the association did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.09). According to the results the extent of apoptosis was similar in HCCs, gallbladder and pancreatic carcinomas. These tumors also showed here a similar expression pattern of the bcl-2 family of proteins and caspases. None of the individual parameters associated significantly with apoptosis except for bcl-2 and bax in pancreatic carcinoma, neither was there any association between p53 and P-glycoprotein expression and apoptosis. Calculation of a growth index might be helpful in assessing the prognosis of patients with tumors with a scant stroma, such as HCC.

Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death which plays a fundamental role in maintaining homeostasis in multi-cellular organisms. The Bcl-2 family has been identified as the central players in regulation of apoptosis. It consists of anti-apoptotic proteins (e.g Bcl-XL) and pro-apoptotic proteins which are further classified as BH3 proteins (e.g Bim, Bid) and effector proteins (e.g Bax, Bak). BH3-proteins regulate apoptosis by activating the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak to permeabilize mitochondria, and/or by inhibiting anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-XL and Bcl-2. In this study, we employed fluorescence spectroscopy and functional assays with full-length Bim and showed that major Bim isoforms have similar activities in vitro. Bim preferably activates Bax over Bak while Bid preferably activates Bak. Bim displayed a unique binding to Bcl-XL so that the Bim-Bcl-XL complex is resistant to BH3-mimic drug ABT-263 treatment while Bid does not. A Bcl-XL enhancer BH3 TCTP was also shown to interact with Bim-Bcl-XL and Bid-Bcl-XL complex differently, where a single mutation abolished its enhancement of Bid-Bcl-XL but not Bim-Bcl-XL. Closer investigation of the dual apoptotic functions of the BH3-protein Bim revealed that the C-terminal membrane binding domain (MBD) is unexpectedly also involved both in binding of Bim to Bax in solution and in activating Bax. Multiple mutations in this domain reduced or abolished binding to membranes but did not affect binding to Bax or correlate with Bax activation. Deletion eliminated binding to and activation of Bax, but not binding to or inhibition of Bcl-XL. Thus MBD mediates binding to both membranes and Bax separately. On the other hand, although the MBD is not the determining factor for interactions with Bcl-XL, our data demonstrates Bim MBD also plays a major role in binding to Bcl-XL. The C-terminal MBD was shown to be contributing to the ABT-263 resistance of Bim-Bcl-XL complex by directly interacting with Bcl-XL. We discovered additional interactions between the MBD of Bim and both Bcl-XL and Bcl-2. Our data suggested a novel topology and mechanism for the Bim-MBD that positions the central hydrophobic residues of the MBD appropriately for binding to Bcl-XL. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death which plays a fundamental role in maintaining homeostasis in multi-cellular organisms. The Bcl-2 family has been identified as the central players in regulation of apoptosis. It consists of anti-apoptotic proteins (e.g Bcl-XL) and pro-apoptotic proteins which are further classified as BH3 proteins (e.g Bim, Bid) and effector proteins (e.g Bax, Bak). Here we showed that Bim is constitutively active in vitro and preferably activates Bax, distinguishing itself from Bid which preferably activate Bak. We showed that the C-terminus membrane binding domain (MBD) of Bim plays a crucial role in reguating binding and activation of Bax, as well as providing extra binding support to Bcl-XL, independent of its membrane binding feature.

Apoptosis is the process by which organisms eliminate excess, damaged or hazardous cells in a controlled manner. This process is controlled by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL are anti-apoptotic paralogues that can replace CED-9, the sole homologue in C. elegans. It has therefore been assumed that Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL are replaceable and functionally identical. However, evidence in some mammalian cells indicates that this may not be the case. The purpose of this project was to exhaustively compare the anti-apoptotic activities of Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL in one cell type. As Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL have been found to localize to the ER and the outer mitochondrial membrane, we also determined whether subcellular location affects the function of these proteins differently. MCF-7 breast cancer cells were stably transfected with Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL alternatively targeted to the ER or mitochondria, and exposed to various doses of doxorubicin; PARP cleavage was measured using quantitative Western blotting as an indication of apoptosis to obtain EC₅₀ values in the different cell lines. The levels of both Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL affected anti-apoptotic activity; specific degradation of both proteins was noted at higher doses of doxorubicin. Nevertheless, the results indicated clearly that there was a difference between Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL. Using EC₅₀ values Bcl-XL mutants were at least 8 times more protective than Bcl-2 mutants. Furthermore, most of the cleavage products of PARP in Bcl-XL expressing clones were due to non-caspase-7 proteases, a pattern not seen with Bcl-2. Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL localized to mitochondria were most effective, while cytosolic and ER localized Bcl-XL were less effective, and Bcl-2 at these sites did not inhibit apoptosis. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

A major challenge in cancer therapy is the emergence of acquired resistance to a wide range of chemotherapeutic drugs with unrelated structures and activities. Possible mechanisms to explain drug resistance are induction of efflux pumps, activation of scavenging pathways and/or changes in the oncogene status of a cell. A number of studies have shown that overexpression of Bcl-2 confers resistance by preventing drug induced apoptosis. In this thesis, Madin Darby canine kidney epithelial (MOCK) cells were used to investigate the relationship between cisplatin resistance and Bcl-2 expression. In our studies overexpression of Bcl-2 was sufficient in preventing apoptosis induced by serum deprivation. However, treatment with varying cisplatin doses did not induce an apoptotic response. Electron microscopy and in situ DNA end labelling experiments show changes distinct from those associated with serum deprivationinduced apoptosis. Survival as assessed by DNA fluorometry and clonogenic assays clearly demonstrate that the overexpression of Bcl-2 fails to protect against the cytotoxic effects of cisplatin in MOCK cells. Our results show that cisplatin induces a form of cell death distinct from apoptosis and suggests that multiple pathways to cell death exist which are differentially regulated in a cell type-specific and stimuli-specific fashion. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

La mort cellulaire programmée est un phénomène essentiel retrouvé chez pratiquement toutes les formes de vie. Chez les mammifères, l'apoptose est une forme de mort importante et très étudiée qui a beaucoup influencé l'étude de la mort cellulaire programmée chez les végétaux. Si la plupart des régulateurs et des effecteurs de l'apoptose animale ne sont pas retrouvés chez les plantes, la similarité de certaines caractéristiques morphologiques et biochimiques laisse croire que certains sentiers de régulation sont évolutivement conservés entre ces deux règnes. Dans ce travail, nous démontrons que les homologues végétaux de BI-1, l'un des rares régulateurs de l'apoptose retrouvé chez les plantes, sont très bien conservés structurellement; certaines caractéristiques déduites des BI-1 végétaux permettent de supposer un mode d'action dans la régulation de la mort. Aussi, nous montrons que les homologues végétaux de BI-1 inhibent l'apoptose induite par la surexpression de Bax chez les cellules humaines 293. Le développement et la caractérisation d'un modèle de mort cellulaire induite par Bax chez les végétaux ont aussi été entrepris. Dans un premier temps, l'expression transitoire de Bax murin par infiltration d'Agrobacterium dans des feuilles de tabac n'a pas causé de phénotype de mort. Par contre, des lignées stables de cellules de tabac BY-2 exprimant constitutivement Bax, seul ou en fusion avec les rapporteurs GFP ou GUS, présentent une mort cellulaire prématurée. La mort de ces cellules est accompagnée d'un changement de l'aspect des cultures, de la fragmentation de l'ADN génomique et de modifications morphologiques caractéristiques des cellules végétales en PCD. Ces lignées ont aussi une sensibilité accrue à la mort causée par un milieu de culture sans sucrose. L'ensemble de ces données, remis dans un contexte plus large, renforce l'idée de l'existence une forme de mort évolutivement ancienne à l'origine de toutes les formes de PCD retrouvées aujourd'hui.

Des signes d'apoptose, une forme de suicide cellulaire programmé, ont été décrits dans les gamètes et l'embryon préimplantatoire de nombreuses espèces de mammifères y compris l'homme, à la fois in vitro et in vivo. Parce que le développement embryonnaire serait lié à un équilibre entre prolifération et mort cellulaire, l'étude du contrôle génétique de l'apoptose dans les embryons préimplantatoires est d'une importance considérable. Par ailleurs, on sait que la qualité des gamètes (en particulier des ovocytes) influencerait leur propre survie mais également le développement embryonnaire précoce. Les régulateurs d'apoptose appartenant à la famille Bcl-2 occupent une place centrale dans les voies de décision de vie ou de mort cellulaire. Dans le premier volet de ce travail de thèse, nous avons analysé l'expression des membres de la famille Bcl-2 lors de la transition ovocyte-embryon au troisième jour (J3) et montré que les trois sous-groupes de la famille Bcl-2 présentent un profil d'expression dynamique tout au long du développement embryonnaire précoce humain. La régulation des niveaux d'expression de ces gènes au cours du développement embryonnaire précoce pourrait donc s'avérer cruciale pour le contrôle de la survie embryonnaire, notamment sous des conditions de culture suboptimales. Dans le second volet, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'analyse du transcriptome au cours du développement embryonnaire précoce humain, et plus particulièrement lors de la spécification du trophectoderme. La confrontation du transcriptome des embryons à J3 avec celui des cellules du trophectoderme nous a permis de mettre en évidence des processus moléculaires qui pourraient jouer un rôle important lors de la différenciation du TE, tels que la stéroïdogenèse et les régulations épigénétiques. En plus de son intérêt fondamental, la connaissance de l'expression génique et des mécanismes moléculaires régulant des processus clés tels que l'apoptose et la différenciation cellulaire au cours du développement embryonnaire préimplantatoire peut permettre d'ouvrir des pistes de recherche diagnostique et thérapeutique intéressantes. / Apoptosis, a form of cell death by self-destruction, has been reported in gametes and preimplantation embryos both in vitro and in vivo. Recent evidence suggests that cell death processes can impact embryo developmental competence. Moreover, quality of the gametes (particularly of the oocytes) is relevant not only for their own survival but can also influence embryonic development during the early cleavage stages. Thus, the investigation of apoptosis-related genes and mechanisms in early embryos is crucial. Bcl-2 family proteins, through balanced interactions between pro- and anti-apoptotic members, play a pivotal role in controlling cell life and death. In a first part, we analyzed the expression patterns of Bcl-2 family members during the human oocytes-to-day 3 embryo transition and showed that several members were differentially regulated. The regulation of the expression levels of anti- and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members during early embryonic development may therefore be crucial for the control of early embryo survival, especially under suboptimal culture conditions. In a second part, we were interested in studying the transcriptome during human early embryonic development, and particularly during the trophectoderm specification. The comparison of the transcriptome of embryos on day 3 with that of trophectoderm cells allowed us to identify new molecular processes that could play an important role during trophectoderm differentiation and development, such as steroidogenesis and epigenetic regulations. In addition to its fundamental interest, a better knowledge of gene expression and molecular mechanisms regulating key processes such as apoptosis and cell differentiation during human early embryonic development may provide new guides for diagnosis and therapeutic strategies.