Les acides biliaires sont reconnus comme des tensioactifs d’origine biologique potentiellement applicables dans le domaine pharmaceutique. Leurs structures en font une plateforme idéale pour l’obtention de nouvelles architectures polymères. Des composés synthétisés par polymérisation anionique de dérivés d’oxirane comme l’oxyde d’éthylène, offre des dérivés amphiphiles pegylés démontrant des propriétés d’agrégation intéressantes en vue d’une amélioration de la biocompatibilité et de la capacité d’encapsulation médicamenteuse. Une large gamme d’acides biliaires pegylés (BA(EGn)x) a été préparée avec comme objectif premier leurs applications dans la formulation de principes actifs problématiques. Pour cela, une caractérisation rigoureuse du comportement de ces dérivés (modulation de la longueur (2 < n < 19) et du nombre de bras (2 < x < 4) de PEG) en solution a été réalisée. Dans le but d’améliorer la biodisponibilité de principes actifs lipophiles (cas de l’itraconazole), des nanoémulsions spontanées, composées de BA(EGn)x et d’acide oléique, ont été développées. L’évaluation in vitro, de la toxicité (cellulaire), et de la capacité de solubilisation des systèmes BA(EGn)x, ainsi que les paramètres pharmacocinétiques in vivo (chez le rat), suggèrent une livraison contrôlée par nos systèmes auto-assemblés lors de l’administration orale et intraveineuse. Aussi, la synthèse de copolymères en blocs en étoile à base d’acide cholique pegylés a été effectuée par polymérisation anionique par addition d’un second bloc au caractère hydrophobe de poly(éther d’allyle et de glycidyle) (CA(EGn-b-AGEm)4). Selon le ratio de blocs hydrophiles-hydrophobes CA(EGn-b-AGEm)4, des réponses thermiques en solution (LCST) ont été observées par un point de trouble (Cp) entre 8 oC et 37 oC. Un mécanisme de formation d’agrégats en plusieurs étapes est suggéré. La thiolation des allyles des PAGE permet une fonctionnalisation terminale à haute densité, comparable aux dendrimères. Les caractérisations physico-chimiques des CA(EGn-b-AGEm-NH2)4 et CA(EGn-b-AGEm-COOH)4 indiquent la formation de structures auto-assemblées en solution, sensibles à la température ou au pH. Cette fonctionnalisation élargie le domaine d’application des dérivés d’acides biliaires pegylés en étoile vers la transfection d’ADN, la livraison de siRNA thérapeutiques ou encore à une sélectivité de livraison médicamenteux (ex. sensibilité au pH, greffage ligands). / Bile acids are natural compounds and may have potential for pharmaceutical applications. Their structures provide an interesting platform for polymerization to obtain well-defined architectures. The anionic polymerization of oxirane derivatives, mainly PEG derivatives, endowed new aggregation properties and improvement of biocompatibility of the new amphiphilic polymers based on bile acids. A library of pegylated bile acids (BA(EGn)x) was prepared for the formulation of lipophilic drugs. The aqueous physicochemical behaviors of these derivatives (modulation of the length (2 < n < 19) and the number (2 < x < 4) of PEG arm) were investigated. In order to improve the bioavailability of insoluble active compounds (itraconazole, an antifungal drug), a binary system based on the association of BA(EGn)x and oleic acid, formed self-emulsifying drug delivery systems. The in vitro evaluation of cell toxicity and solubilization capacities of the BA(EGn)x systems followed by the in vivo evaluation in rats of the pharmacokinetic parameters demonstrated the advantages of our self-assembled system for controlled drug delivery for both oral and intravenous administration. Star-shaped block copolymers of pegylated cholic acid (CA(EGn-b-AGEm)4) were prepared by the introduction of a second hydrophobic block of PAGE poly(allyl glycidyl ether). They demonstrated thermosensitivity (8 oC < LCST < 37 oC) in aqueous solution, suggesting a mechanism based on the formation of aggregates in two steps. The PAGE block with pendant groups may facilitate futher functionalization. The thiolation of allyl yields a new class of charged PEGylated star polymers (with multiple amines or carboxylic groups). CA(EGn-b-AGEm-NH2)4 and CA(EGn-b-AGEm-COOH)4 derivatives showed self-assembled structures in solution with temperature and pH responsiveness, respectively. This functionalization may lead to broader application of pegylated star derivatives in DNA transfection systems, siRNA delivery systems or as selective delivery system (pH-dependent).

<p>Žučne kiseline (ŽK) su strukturno raznoliki molekuli, koji pored uloge koju ostvaruju putem žuči, deluju i kao signalni molekuli i ostvaruju kako endokrina tako i parakrina dejstva. Činjenica da je do sada u terapijske svrhe primenjivana samo ursodeoksiholna kiselina (UDK), posledica je brojnih ograničenja u mogućnosti primene ostalih prirodnih ŽK, i ističe potrebu za otkrivanjem novih sintetskih ŽK i liganda. Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitivanje sintetske 12-monoketoholne kiseline (MK) i prirodne UDK u modelu holestaze i aloksanom izazvanog dijabetesa. Ispitivanja su vr&scaron;ena na pacovima soja Wistar. Analizirana je telesna masa, glikemija, pokazatelji jetrene funkcije (AST; ALT, &gamma;-GT, ukupni i direktni bilirubin), a iz homogenate jetre određen je intenzitet lipidne peroksidacije i aktivnost antioksidativnih enzima (CAT, GSH-Px, GSH-R, GSH-ST). Isečci tkiva jetre su histolo&scaron;ki obrađeni i bojeni hematoksilin-eozin metodom i histohemijskim metodama (retikulin, Mallory, Periodic Acid Schiff- Alcian Blue (PAS/AB)). Imunohistohemijski je ispitana proliferacija hepatocita (Ki-67), markeri apoptoze (p53, Bcl-2, Bcl-X, Bax) i ekspresija nuklearnog farnesoid X receptora (FXR). Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da ispitivane ŽK pomažu očuvanje telesne mase u holestazi i dijabetesu, i značajno snižavaju glikemiju kod dijabetičnih jedinki. Parametri jetrene funkcije u holestazi i dijabetesu su regulisani primenom MK i UDK. Obe ŽK u značajnoj meri smanjuju intenzitet lipidne peroksidacije i pojačavaju enzimsku antioksidativnu odbranu hepatocita u holestazi i dijabetesu. Ekspresija markera apoptoze nije značajno promenjena izazvanjem modela holestaze i dijabetesa, kao ni primenom ispitivanih ŽK. Nasuprot tome, izazivanje holestaze i dijabetesa značajno smanjuje proliferaciju hepatocita, dok primena MK i UDK poni&scaron;tava ovaj efekat i značajno povećava proliferaciju hepatocita. Hiperglikemija u aloksanskom dijabetesu nije dovela do pojačane ekspresije FXR. Izazivanje holestaze kod zdravih i dijabetičnih životinja dovelo je do porasta ekspresije FXR, koja je redukovana primenom MK i UDK. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata može se zaključiti da sintetska 12-monoketoholna kiselina pokazuje slična hipoglikemijska, hepatoprotektivna i antioksidativna dejstva kao i prirodna ursodeoksiholna kiselina.</p> / <p>Bile acids (BAs) are structurally diverse molecules, which have theroles in the digestive system, which are exercised through the bile. Beside those, BAs act as a signaling molecules and achieve endocrine and paracrine effects. In addition to its own metabolism, bile acids modulate the metabolism of lipids and glucose. The fact that so far only ursodeoxycholic acid (UDC) is used for therapeutic purposes, speak clearly about of numerous limitations on the application of other natural BAs, and highlights the need to develop new synthetic Bas and ligands. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of synthetic 12-monoketocholic acid (MC) and natural bila acid UDC in the model of cholestasis and alloxan-induced diabetes. Tests were performed on male Wistar rats. We analyzed the body mass, glucose, liver function tests (AST, ALT, &gamma;-GT, total and direct bilirubin). Using liver tissue homogenates we determined intensity of lipid peroxidation (by concentration of malondilaldehyde) and the activity of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, GSH-Px, GSH -R, GSH-ST). Liver tissue were histologically processed and stained with hematoxylin-eosin method and histochemical methods (reticulin, Mallory, Periodic Acid Schiff- Alcian Blue (PAS / AB)). Imunohistochemical examination included hepatocyte proliferation (Ki-67), markers of apoptosis (p53, Bcl-2, Bcl-X, Bax), and expression of the nuclear farnesoid X receptor (FXR). Results of the research show that MC prevented decrease in body mass during cholestasis and diabetes, and significantly reduced glycemia in diabetic animals. The liver function tests in cholestasis and diabetes are normalised by MC and UDC aplication. Both BAs significantly reduce lipid peroxidation and enhance enzymatic antioxidant defense of hepatocytes in cholestasis and diabetes. The expression of markers of apoptosis was not significantly changed in models of cholestasis and diabetes, as well as the application of the tested BAs. In contrast, in cholestasis and diabetes model, the proliferation of hepatocytes was significantly reduced, while the use of MC and UDC reversed this effect and significantly increased the proliferation of hepatocytes. Hyperglycemia in alloxan-induced diabetes did not lead to overexpression of FXR. Induction of cholestasis in healthy and diabetic animals resulted in an increase in the expression of FXR, which is reduced by using the MK and the UDC. Based on these results we can conclude that a synthetic 12-monoketocholic acid shows similar hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective and antioxidant effects as natural ursodeoxycholic acid.</p>

<p>Uvod: U pro&scaron;losti žučne kiseline su uglavnom razmatrane sa stanovi&scaron;ta njihove funkcije koju obavljaju u crevima jer posreduju u varenju masti i apsorpciji liposolubilnih vitamina. Nedavne studije potvrđuju da žučne kiseline ne igraju samo ulogu u varenju masti, nego se pona&scaron;aju i kao signalni molekuli koji stupaju u interakciju sa raznim receptorima uključujući nuklearne receptore i receptore vezane za G-proteine. Kao amfipatični molekuli one su sposobne da reaguju sa fosfolipidima ćelijskih membrana i da pobolj&scaron;avaju prolazak lekova kroz njih. Stoga se žučne kiseline razmatraju kao promoteri u bukalnim, okularnim i nazalnim farmaceutskim formulacijama. Cilj: Svrha ovog istraživanja je bila da se ispitaju žučne kiseline i njihovi okso derivati kao jedinjenja koja utiču na propustljivost ćelijskih membrana i prolazak lekova do ciljnih tkiva. Materijal i metod: Interakcije makrolidnih antibiotika i žučnih kiselina su ispitivane uz pomoć NMR difuzionih merenja i relaksacije paramagnetičnim jonima. Retencioni parametri odabranih žučnih kiselina su dobijeni kori&scaron;ćenjem hromatografije na normalnim fazama i evaluisani su primenom pet različitih softvera. In vivo ekaperimenti su sprovedeni na 126 eksperimentalnih životinja koje su bile podeljene u 21 grupu. Rezultati: Vezivanje žučnih kiselina za micele je indikovano razlikama u hemijskom pomeranju makrolida i pro&scaron;irenju signala kao posledica redukovane mobilnosti unutar micela. Dodatak micela žučnih kiselina povećava solubilizaciju makrolida za faktor približno 2-3. Sprovedena korelaciona analiza pokazala je značajnu zavisnost između faktora retencije i intestinalne apsorpcije, prodora u MDCK epitelne ćelije, permeabilnost kroz kožu, logBB i PPB%. Putem implementacije in vivo eksperimentalnog dela pokazano je da žučne kiseline utiču na prolazak makrolida u tkivo mozga, bubrega i jetre. Zaključak: Ispitivane žučne kiseline pokazuju dobre farmakokinetske karakteristike i olak&scaron;avaju prolazak makrolida kroz različite ćelijske membrane.</p> / <p>Introduction: In the past, bile acids were mostly considered to function in the intestine where they play a role in digestion of fats and mediate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Recent studies confirm that bile acids not only facilitate solubilization of fats but behave as signal molecules that interact with various receptors including nuclear receptors and G protein-coupled receptors. As amphipathic molecules they are able to interact with phospholipids of cells membranes and enhance drugs permeation. Thus, bile acids are considered as drug promoters in buccal, ocular, nasal, and transdermal dosage forms. Purpose: The purpose of this research was to investigate bile acids and its oxo derivatives as enhancers in drug permeability. Three research methods to evaluate the characteristics of bile acids and its properties were used. Material and method: The interaction between macrolide antibiotics and bile acids was investigated by NMR chemical-shift titration, self-diffusion measurements and paramagnetic relaxation enhancements. Retention parameters of selected bile acids are acquired by normal-phase thin layer chromatography and evaluated using five different softwares. In vivo experiments were conducted on 126 animals which were divided in 21 groups. Results: Binding bile acids to the micelles is indicated by differences in the chemical shift of the macrolides and line broadening as a consequence of reduced mobility in the micelle. Addition of bile micelles increases the solubility of macrolide antibiotics by a factor of approximately 2&ndash;3. Examined correlation analysis confirmed significant dependence between retention factor and intestinal absorption, MDCK epithelial cells, skin permeability, logBB and PPB%. Through the implementation of in vivo experiments it is shown that bile acids promote penetration of macrolides in brain tissue, kidney and liver. Conclusion: Investigated bile acids showed good pharmacokinetic properties and facilitate in macrolides permeation through various membranes.</p>

Les estrogènes confèrent aux femmes une protection cardiovasculaire jusqu’à la ménopause. En effet, la perte des fonctions ovariennes engendre plusieurs désordres du profil lipidique qui s’accompagnent d’une accumulation de triglycérides au foie appelée stéatose hépatique. Le retrait des estrogènes perturbe de nombreuses voies de contrôle de la cholestérolémie, provoquant simultanément une hypercholestérolémie et une stéatose hépatiques. Toutefois, à ce jour, les mécanismes d’action du retrait des estrogènes sur le métabolisme du cholestérol favorisant le stockage de triglycérides au foie demeurent imprécis. À cet égard, les travaux de cette thèse visaient à clarifier l’ensemble des effets du retrait des estrogènes sur le métabolisme du cholestérol pouvant mener à la pathogenèse de la stéatose hépatique. Lors de la première étude, l’ovariectomie (Ovx) chez la rate, un modèle bien établi de la stéatose, avait permis d’identifier la voie d’assemblage des lipoprotéines à très faible densité (VLDL) comme élément contributif à la stéatose. La voie des VLDL reliant étant également une voie de transport du cholestérol, l’étude suivante a été réalisée afin de comprendre le rôle du cholestérol alimentaire sur les lipides hépatiques. Dans cette deuxième étude, le modèle de la diète riche en lipides et en cholestérol (HFHC), aussi reconnu pour induire une stéatose hépatique, a permis d’établir des liens étroits entre le métabolisme du cholestérol et celui des lipides hépatiques. Étonnamment, de manière similaire à l’Ovx, la diète HFHC perturbait la voie d’assemblage des VLDL. En outre, les données recueillies au cours de ces travaux indiquaient qu’une dysrégulation du métabolisme des acides biliaires avait contribué à la sévérité de la stéatose hépatique induite par cette diète HFHC. Dans la continuité de ces deux premiers projets, nous nous sommes intéressés aux effets concomitants du retrait des estrogènes et d’une diète HFHC sur la stéatose hépatique. De manière intéressante, lorsque combinés, l’Ovx et la diète HFHC potentialisaient non seulement l’accumulation de lipides hépatiques, mais également les perturbations moléculaires des voies sous-jacentes à la stéatose, dont l’assemblage des VLDL et de la sécrétion d’acides biliaires. Dans l’ensemble, les données présentées dans la revue de littérature et dans les trois études reliées à cette thèse indiquent qu’une dysrégulation du métabolisme du cholestérol en réponse au retrait des estrogènes entraîne des complications favorisant l’accumulation de lipides dans le foie. / Estrogens confer to women a cardiovascular protection until menopause. Indeed, the loss of ovarian functions leads to several lipid disorders along with hepatic triglycerides accumulation called hepatic steatosis. Estrogen withdrawal disrupts several cholesterol metabolism pathways that results in both hypercholesterolemia and hepatic steatosis. However, to date, the precise mechanisms by which estrogen withdrawal affect cholesterol metabolism pathways that favour lipid storage in the liver are unclear. In this regard, works in the present thesis aimed at elucidate the effects of estrogen withdrawal on cholesterol metabolism involved in hepatic steatosis pathogenesis. In the first study, estrogen withdrawal by ovariectomy (Ovx), a well established model for hepatic steatosis and hypercholesterolemia, had enabled the identification of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) pathway as a contributory element for hepatic steatosis. Since the VLDL pathway relates lipids and cholesterol metabolism, we conducted the second study to explore the role of dietary cholesterol on hepatic lipids. In the second study, the high fat/high cholesterol (HFHC) diet, also recognized as a model for hepatic steatosis development, was used to explore links between cholesterol metabolism and hepatic fat accumulation. Surprisingly, HFHC diet also disrupted the VLDL pathway. Additionally, data provided in this study indicated that a dysregulation of bile acids metabolism might have contributed to the severity of hepatic steatosis induced by the HFHC diet. As a continuation of these projects, we were interested in the concomitant effects of estrogen withdrawal and HFHC diet on hepatic lipid accretion. Interestingly, when combined, Ovx and HFHC diet not only potentiated hepatic lipid accumulation but also molecular disruptions involved in underlying pathways for hepatic steatosis including the VLDL pathway and bile acid secretion. Overall, data presented in the review of litterature and provided by the three studies related to the present thesis indicate that cholesterol metabolism dysregulation following estrogen withdrawal result in complications that favour hepatic lipid accumulation.

La stéatose hépatique et la détérioration du profil lipidique plasmatique sont des pathologies métaboliques favorisées par la carence œstrogénique post-ménopausique. Cependant les mécanismes à la base de ces pathologies n’ont été que très peu étudiés. Le but de cette thèse a été d’investiguer les mécanismes moléculaires possibles à l’origine de l’hypercholestérolémie et de l’accumulation des lipides (triglycérides : TG et cholestérol) dans le foie en utilisant un modèle animal de la ménopause, la rate Sprague Dawley ovariectomisée (Ovx). Nous avons également examiné si le changement des habitudes de vie comme la pratique de l’exercice physique pouvait prévenir ou corriger les modifications induites par l’Ovx. Enfin, rosuvastatine (statine) a été utilisée comme thérapie pharmacologique de l’hypercholestérolémie dans le but de comprendre son effet au niveau moléculaire chez la rate Ovx. L’objectif de la première étude était de déterminer comment l’Ovx peut affecter les niveaux de TG et de cholestérol dans le foie des rates nourries avec une diète riche en lipides (HF : 42% gras). Les rates ont été soumises à la diète HF ou normale pendant 6 semaines avant d’être Ovx ou Sham (ovariectomie simulée), puis maintenues aux mêmes conditions diététiques pour 6 autres semaines. L’Ovx a provoqué une accumulation de TG dans le foie, mais pas la diète HF seule. Cependant, lorsque l’Ovx était combinée à la diète HF, l’accumulation des TG était beaucoup plus importante comparé à ce qui était observé chez les rates Ovx soumises à la diète normale. L’expression génique (ARNm) de CPT1 (Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1), PGC1α (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1) et PPARα (Peroxysome proliferetor activated receptor alpha) intervenant dans l’oxydation des acides gras dans le foie était augmentée par la diète HF (p ˂ 0.001; p ˂ 0.01; p ˂ 0.05 respectivement) ; mais atténuée (p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.07 respectivement) lorsque les rates ont été Ovx, favorisant ainsi l’accumulation des TG dans le foie. La combinaison de la diète HF à l’Ovx a également provoqué une hypercholestérolémie et une accumulation de cholestérol dans le foie malgré la diminution de l’expression de la HMGCoA-r (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase), enzyme clé de la synthèse du cholestérol. Ceci était associé à l’inhibition de l’expression génique de CYP7a1 (Cytochrome P450, family 7, subfamily a, polypeptide 1), suggérant une diminution de la synthèse des acides biliaires. Ayant constaté dans la première étude que l’Ovx élevait les niveaux de cholestérol hépatique et plasmatique, nous nous sommes fixés comme objectif dans la deuxième étude d’évaluer les effets de l’Ovx sur l’expression génique des transporteurs et enzymes responsables du métabolisme du cholestérol et des acides biliaires dans le foie et l’intestin, et de vérifier si l’exercice sur tapis roulant pouvait prévenir ou corriger les changements causés par l’Ovx. L’hypercholestérolémie constatée chez les rates Ovx comparativement aux Sham était accompagnée de la diminution de l’expression génique des récepteurs des LDL (R-LDL), des résidus de lipoprotéines (LRP1), de SREBP-2 (Sterol regulatory element binding protein 2) et de PCSK9 (Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) dans le foie, suggérant une défaillance dans la clairance des lipoprotéines plasmatiques. L’Ovx a aussi inhibé l’expression génique de la MTP (Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein) et stimulé celle de SR-B1 (Scavenger receptor class B, member 1); mais aucun changement n’a été observé avec CYP7a1. Ces changements moléculaires pourraient par conséquent favoriser l’accumulation de cholestérol dans le foie. L’exercice physique n’a pas corrigé les modifications causées par l’Ovx sur l’expression génique de ces molécules au niveau hépatique à l’exception de SREBP-2. Par contre, au niveau intestinal (iléum), l’exercice sur tapis roulant a inhibé l’expression génique des marqueurs moléculaires intervenant dans l’absorption des acides biliaires (OSTα/β, FXR, RXRα, Fgf15) et du cholestérol (LXRα, NCP1L1) au niveau de l’iléum chez les rates Sham entraînées. Ces adaptations pourraient prévenir le développement de l’hypercholestérolémie protégeant en partie contre la survenue de l’athérosclérose. Au vue des effets délétères (hypercholestérolémie et diminution de l’expression du R-LDL, PCSK9, LRP1, SREBP-2 et HMGCOA-r dans le foie) causés par l’Ovx sur le métabolisme du cholestérol constatés dans l’étude 2, la 3ième étude a été conçue pour évaluer l’efficacité de rosuvastatine (Ros) sur l’expression génique de ces marqueurs moléculaires chez les rates Ovx sédentaires ou soumises à l’entraînement volontaire. Ros a été administrée aux rates Ovx pendant 21 jours par voie sous-cutanée à la dose de 5mg/kg/j à partir de la 9ième semaine après l’Ovx. Ros n’a pas diminué la concentration plasmatique de LDL-C et de TC chez les rates Ovx. Par contre, Ros a stimulé (P ˂ 0.05) l’expression génique de PCSK9, SREBP-2, LRP1, HMGCoA-r et ACAT2 (Acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase) mais pas significativement (P = 0.3) celle du R-LDL dans le foie des rates Ovx sédentaires et entraînées. Ros n’a pas réduit la concentration plasmatique de LDL-C probablement à cause de l’induction plus importante de PCSK9 par rapport au R-LDL. Cependant, la stimulation de LRP1 par Ros protège partiellement contre la survenue des maladies cardiovasculaires. En conclusion, les études de cette thèse indiquent que la baisse du niveau des œstrogènes entraîne des changements radicaux du métabolisme hépatique des TG et du cholestérol provoqués par des altérations de l’expression des gènes clés des voies métaboliques associées. / Hepatic steatosis and plasma lipid profile deterioration are metabolic diseases favored by post-menopausal estrogen deficiency. However, mechanisms underlying these diseases have not been systematically adressed. The aim of this thesis was to investigate molecular mechanisms causing hypercholesterolemia and lipids (triglycerides: TG and cholesterol) accumulation in the liver using animal model of menopause, the ovariectomized (Ovx) Sprague Dawley rat. We also examined whether lifestyle modifications such as physical activity can prevent or correct changes induced by Ovx. Finally, rosuvastatin (statine) was used as a pharmacological therapy of hypercholesterolemia in order to understand its effect at the molecular level in Ovx rats. The first study was designed to determine how the Ovx may affect levels of TG and cholesterol in the liver of rats fed a high-fat diet (HF: 42% fat). Rats were submitted to a HF or a normal diet for 6 weeks prior to Ovx or being sham operated, and then kept on the same diets for another 6 weeks. The Ovx increased liver TG content, but not the HF diet alone. However, the combination of Ovx and HF diet resulted in a greater liver TG accumulation than that observed in Ovx submitted to normal diet. The mRNA levels of CPT-1, PGC1 and PPARα involved in liver lipid oxidation significantly increased in rats fed the HF diet (p ˂ 0.001; p ˂ 0.01; p ˂ 0.05 respectively); but this increase was substantially less if HF fed rats were Ovx (p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.07 respectively), thus favouring TG accumulation in the liver. The combination of HF diet and Ovx also induced hypercholesterolemia and an increase in liver total cholesterol content, in spite of the reduction of liver HMGCoA-r gene expression, the key enzyme for cholesterol synthesis. This was also associated with a decrease of liver CYP7a1 gene expression, suggesting a reduction in bile acids synthesis. Having found in the first study that the Ovx increases liver and plasma cholesterol levels, we aimed in the second study at determining the effects of Ovx on gene expression of hepatic and intestinal transporters and enzymes involved in cholesterol and bile acids metabolism; and to verify whether treadmill exercise could prevent or correct changes induced by Ovx. The Ovx resulted in hypercholesterolemia associated with a reduction in gene expression of hepatic low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R), lipoprotein remnants receptor (LRP1), SREBP-2 and PCSK9, suggesting a failure in the clearance of plasma lipoproteins particles. The Ovx also inhibited the expression of MTP and stimulated that of SR-B1 in the liver, but no change was observed with CYP7a1. These molecular changes might, therefore, favor cholesterol accumulation in the liver. Exercise training did not correct the deleterious effects caused by Ovx on gene expression of these molecular markers in the liver with the exception of SREBP-2. However, in the intestine (ileum) treadmill exercise reduced gene expression of molecular markers involved in the absorption of bile acids (OSTα/β, FXR, RXRα, Fgf15) and cholesterol (LXRα, NCP1L1) in Sham trained rats compared to sedentary rats. This could prevent the development of cholestasis and hypercholesterolemia protecting partially against the onset of atherosclerosis. In view of the deleterious effects (hypercholesterolemia and decreased in gene expression of LDL-R, PCSK9, LRP1, SREBP-2 and HMGCoA-r in the liver) caused by Ovx on cholesterol metabolism observed in the second study, the 3rd study was designed to test the effect of rosuvastatin (Ros) on gene expression of these molecular markers in Ovx sedentary rats or in Ovx rats submitted to voluntary training. Ros was injected to Ovx rats subcutaneously at dose of 5mg/kg/day during 21 days from the ninth week after ovariectomy. Ros failed to decrease plasma LDL-C and TC in Ovx rats. In contrast, Ros increased (P ˂ 0.05) PCSK9, SREBP-2, LRP1, HMGCoA-r and ACAT2 but not significantly (P ˂ 0.3) LDL-R mRNA in the Ovx sedentary and trained rat liver. Ros failed to decrease plasma LDL-C in Ovx rats probably because of a stronger induction of PCSK9 than LDL-R gene expression. However by increasing LRP1 expression, Ros could decrease circulating lipoprotein remnants and, therefore, protects partially against the onset of cardiovascular diseases. In conclusion, the studies of this thesis indicate that the decrease of ovarian estrogen levels causes radical changes in hepatic TG and cholesterol metabolism caused by alterations in the expression of key genes associated with metabolic pathways.

Au cours des dernières années, une sélection génétique importante a été faite pour améliorer la production de lait des bovins, ceci au détriment des performances reproductives. Cette diminution de performance n’a cependant pas été rapportée chez la génisse présentant un même potentiel génétique. Cette immense production de lait et les changements métaboliques qui l’accompagnent ont donc un impact négatif sur l’efficacité reproductive des vaches laitières qui subissent un stress métabolique supérieur à celui des génisses. Le but de l’étude était d’acquérir une meilleure connaissance des différences moléculaires et métaboliques entre ces deux groupes d’animaux pour amener à une meilleure compréhension de la pathogenèse de l’infertilité chez la vache laitière. Pour ce faire, les vagues folliculaires de vaches en lactation (30-50 jours en lait; N = 12) et de génisses (N = 10) ont été synchronisées par ablation écho guidée des follicules et par traitement hormonal avec injection de prostaglandine et insertion d’un implant de progestérone. L’aspiration du liquide folliculaire et des cellules de la granulosa du follicule dominant a été faite au jour 6. Les paramètres métaboliques mesurés chez les animaux à partir de prises de sang, faites au jour 6, confirment un plus grand stress métabolique chez la vache, les niveaux de BHBA, acides biliaires et cholestérol étant plus élevés et le niveau de glucose plus bas chez celles-ci. Un total de six échantillons a été utilisé pour le séquençage d’ARN et des analyses bio-informatiques ont été effectuées. Plusieurs gènes et voies de signalisation ont présenté des différences entre les deux groupes d’animaux incluant le cycle cellulaire et la production d’hormones. Une confirmation des résultats par PCR en temps réel a été faite, mais la grande variation intragroupe a nui à l’obtention de résultats significatifs. Conjointement, une culture primaire de cellules de la granulosa a été réalisée pour évaluer l’effet des acides biliaires sur la stéroïdogenèse suite à la détection d’une plus grande quantité de ceux-ci chez la vache laitière. La présence d’acide biliaire dans la culture cellulaire cause une diminution de l’accumulation d’estradiol ainsi que de l’expression des gènes CYP19A1 et CYP11A1. Les résultats présentés dans ce mémoire indiquent une différence potentielle au niveau métabolique et moléculaire des follicules dominants entre la vache laitière et la génisse pouvant avoir une responsabilité dans la diminution de l’efficacité reproductive observée chez la vache laitière. / Over the last fifty or more years, genetic selection has been employed to improve milk production in dairy cattle. This selection was made at the expense of reproductive performance. The observed decrease in fertility does not occur in heifers with the same genetic merit. The enormous milk production and the metabolic challenge that accompany it have a negative impact on the reproductive efficiency due to the metabolic stress of lactation. The purpose of the study was to gain a better knowledge of the molecular and metabolic difference between the two groups of animals in order to better understand the pathogenesis of infertility in dairy cows. To do this, the follicular wave of twelve lactating cows (30-50 days in milk; N = 12) and ten heifers (N = 10) were synchronized by ultrasound guided follicle ablation and by hormonal treatment with injection of prostaglandin-F2α and insertion of a progesterone implant. Follicular fluid and granulosa cells of the dominant follicle were aspirated on day 6. The metabolic indicators BHBA, total bile acids, cholesterol and glucose, were measured in the animals from the blood samples also taken on day 6 confirming greater metabolic stress in the cows when compared to the heifers. A total of six samples were used for RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analyses were performed. Several genes and signaling and cellular function pathways were shown to differ between the two groups of animals, including the cell cycle signaling pathway and hormone production pathway. A confirmation of the results by real-time PCR was undertaken, but the great intragroup variation obviated significant results. In the second set of experiments, primary culture of granulosa cells was conducted to evaluate the effect of bile acids on steroidogenesis to further explore the larger amount of the bile acids in the dairy cows when compared to heifers. The results demonstrate a difference in the metabolic status of the animals; BHBA, total bile acids and cholesterol being higher and glucose being lower in the dairy cow relative to the heifer. Presence of bile acids in the granulosa cell culture caused a decrease in expression of CYP19A1, CYP11A1 and estradiol accumulation. The differences at the metabolic and molecular level of the dominant follicles between dairy cows and heifers may be implicated in the reduced reproductive efficiency of the dairy cows.

<p>Gliklazid je jedan od najče&scaron;će kori&scaron;ćenih lekova u terapiji dijabetes melitusa tip 2. U poslednje vreme, utvrđeno je da gliklazid ispoljava i druge pozitivne farmakolo&scaron;ke efekte kao &scaron;to su imunomodulatorni i anti-koagulacioni efekti, ukazujući na njegovu potencijalnu primenu u terapiji dijabetes melitusa tip 1. Gliklazid se odlikuje varijabilnim stepenom apsorpcije nakon peroralne primene i iz tog razloga pretpostavlja se da bi tehnike njegove ciljane isporuke, kao &scaron;to je mikroinkapsulacija, mogle da dovedu do pobolj&scaron;anja njegove apsorpcije i njegove potencijalne primene u terapiji T1DM. Pokazano je da različite žučne kiseline, uključujući i holnu, imaju stabilizacione efekte u domenu primene mikrovezikula i kontrolisanog osobađanja lekova, te je moguće da bi njihov dodatak u mikrovezikularnu formulaciju gliklazida mogao dodatno da pobolj&scaron;a oslobađanje gliklazida, njegovu apsorpciju i antidijabetičke efekte. S tim u vezi, cilj ovog istraživanja je da se ispita hipoglikemijski efekat gliklazida primenjenog u obliku alginatnih mikrovezikula, sa ili bez dodatka holne kiseline na T1DM modelu pacova. Trideset &scaron;est pacova obolelih od T1DM indukovanog aloksanom i odgovarajuće zdrave kontrolne životinje su nasumično raspoređene u &scaron;est grupa (n=6) i tretirane jednokratnom dozom fiziolo&scaron;kog rastvora, suspenzijom gliklazida, gliklazidom u obliku alginatnih mikrovezikula, samo holnom kiselinom, i mikrovezikulama gliklazida sa ili baz dodatka holne kiseline. Uzorkovana je krv tokom 10 h nakon unete doze i merena je koncentracija glukoze u krvi I koncentracija gliklazida u serumu kori&scaron;ćenjem HPLC metode. Mikrovezikule gliklazida su ispoljile hipo-glikemijski efekat kod pacova obolelih od dijabetesa, uprkos njegovim smanjenim koncentracijama u serumu, dok je dodatak holne kiseline u mikrovezikularnu formulaciju smanjio hipoglikemijski efekat gliklazida. Ovo potvrđuje izostanak sinergističkog efekta između gliklazida i holne kiseline. Takođe, ni proces mikroinkapsulacije niti dodatak holne kiseline nisu doprineli pobolj&scaron;anju apsorpcije gliklazida, &scaron;to ukazuje na činjenicu da su njegovi hipoglikemijski efekti nezavisni od njegove apsorpcije i koncentracije u serumu. Stoga se može pretpostaviti da su hipoglikemijski efekti gliklazida pre pod uticajem crevno-metaboličke aktivacije nego ciljanog oslobađanja u digestivnom traktu sistemske apsorpcije. Mikrovezikule gliklazida ispoljavaju hipoglikemijski efekat kod pacova obolelih od T1DM nezavisno od insulina, te mogu imati potencijalnu primenu u terapiji T1DM. Ovaj rad su podržali: HORIZON 2020 MEDLEM projekat broj 690876; Projekat Sekretarijata naučnog i tehnolo&scaron;kog razvoja Vojvodine broj . 114-451-2072-/2016-02; Projekat Ministarstva obrazovanja, nauke i tehnolo&scaron;kog razvoja Republike Srbije broja 41012.</p> / <p><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:DocumentProperties> <o:Author>mladen</o:Author> <o:Version>16.00</o:Version> </o:DocumentProperties> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings></xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> 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Les hydrogels moléculaires avec un réseau de fibres auto-assembles sont utilisés dans différents domaines dont le relargage de médicaments, les senseurs, l’ingénierie tissulaire et la nano-modélisation. Les hydrogels moléculaires à base d’acides biliaires, qui sont une classe de biocomposés d’origine naturelle, montrent une biocompatibilité améliorée et sont de bons candidats pour des applications dans le domaine biomédical. Ces hydrogels présentent une bonne bio-dégradabilité et une diversité fonctionnelle grâce aux faibles interactions supramoléculaires et aux structures chimiques précisément contrôlées. Dans cette thèse, des nouveaux hydrogels moléculaires à base des acides biliaires et leurs dérivés ont été étudiés pour mieux comprendre la relation entre la structure chimique du gélifiant et la formation de gels moléculaires. Un dimère de l'acide cholique avec un groupe diéthylènetriamine est insoluble dans l'eau. Par contre, il peut former des hydrogels grâce à un réseau tri-dimensionnel de fibres en présence de certains acides carboxyliques. L'addition d'acide carboxylique peut protoner le groupe amine secondaire et défaire les interactions intermoléculaires entre les dimères et favoriser la formation des liaisons hydrogènes acide-dimère. Seuls les acides carboxyliques faibles et hydrophiles causent la gélation des dimères. La résistance mécanique des hydrogels formés peut être modifiée par un choix judicieux d'acides. Les interactions hydrophobes et les liaisons hydrogènes entre les chaînes latérales d'acides carboxyliques peuvent améliorer les propriétés mécaniques des hydrogels. La solubilité marginale du complexe acide-dimère a été considérée comme un facteur critique pour la formation d'hydrogels. Un autre système d’hydrogélation à base d’acides biliaires a été développé par l’introduction de dioxyde de carbone (CO2) dans des solutions aqueuses de certains sels d’acides biliaires, qui donne un hydrogel composé de molécules biologiques entièrement naturelles et fournit un réservoir commode du CO2 dans l’eau. Le groupement carboxylate des sels d’acides biliaires peut être partiellement protoné dans les solutions aqueuses, ce qui amène la dissolution marginale dans l’eau et la formation d’hydrogels avec une structure fibreuse. L’aspect et les propriétés mécaniques des hydrogels dépendent de la concentration de CO2. Le bullage avec CO2 pendant une ou deux secondes génère un hydrogel transparent avec des nanofibres. Le bullage supplémentaire forme des hydrogels plus forts. Mais réduit la transparence et la force mécanique des hydrogels. D’ailleurs, les hydrogels transparents ou opaques redeviennent des solutions transparentes quand ils sont chauffés avec bullage de N2. La transition sol-gel est réversible et reproductible. La force mécanique et la transparence des hydrogels peuvent être améliorées par l’addition de sels inorganiques comme NaCl par l’effet de relargage. Toutes les composantes de ces hydrogels sont naturelles, donnant des hydrogels biocompatibles et potentiellement utiles pour des applications dans le domaine biomédical. Le dimère mentionné ci-dessus possède des propriétés d’auto-assemblage dépendamment de sa concentration. Ceci a été étudié en utilisant un sel organique de dimère/acide formique avec un rapport molaire 1/1. Le sel du dimère s’auto-assemble dans l’eau et ainsi forme des nanofibres isolées et mono-dispersées à des concentrations faibles. Les fibres enchevêtrées donnent des réseaux fibreux 3D bien dispersés de façon aléatoire à des concentrations plus élevées. Quand la concentration du sel du dimère est supérieure à la concentration critique de gélation, le réseau fibreux est assez fort pour immobiliser la solution, qui provoque la formation d’un hydrogel isotrope. L’augmentation supplémentaire de la concentration du sel du dimère peut augmenter l’anisotropie de l’hydrogel et former ainsi un hydrogel nématique. La formation de domaines ordonnés des nanofibres alignées donne ces propriétés optiques à l’hydrogel. L’agitation de systèmes aqueux du sel de dimère favorise aussi la formation de nanofibres alignées. / Molecular hydrogels are soft materials formed by the self-assembly of small molecules in aqueous solutions via supramolecular interactions. Although much effort has been made in the past several decades in the study of these hydrogels, the mechanism of their formation remains to be understood and the prediction of their formation is a challenge. The main purpose of this thesis is to develop novel molecular hydrogels derived from bile acids, which are naturally occurring biocompounds, and to find the relationship between the gelator structure and the gelation ability. Two new molecular gelation systems based on bile acids and their derivatives have been developed, which may be useful in biomedical applications. The marginal solubility of the solute in water has been found to be a prerequisite for the formation of such molecular hydrogels. The alignment of the nanofibers in the gels leads to the formation of nematic hydrogels. The first gelation system is based on a cholic acid dimer as a gelator, which has two cholic acid molecules covalently linked by a diethylenetriamine spacer. This dimer is insoluble in water, but it forms hydrogels with 3-D fibrous networks in the presence of selected carboxylic acids. The carboxylic acids protonate the dimer, making it marginally soluble in water to yield hydrogels. Only weak and hydrophilic carboxylic acids were capable of inducing the gelation of the dimer and the mechanical strength of the hydrogels could be varied by judicious choice of the acids. Hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding between the side chains of carboxylic acids improve the mechanical properties of hydrogels. The marginal solubility of the acid-dimer complex is regarded to be the critical factor for the formation of hydrogels. Another hydrogelation system was developed by purging to the aqueous solutions of a series of bile salts with carbon dioxide (CO2), yielding hydrogels made of entire natural biological molecules and providing a convenient storage reservoir of CO2 in water. Bile salts are well dissolved in water, while the solubility of bile acids is limited. The carboxylate group of bile salts may be partially protonated in aqueous solutions by bubbling CO2, making them only marginally soluble in water. This forms fibrous structures. Both the appearance and mechanical properties of the hydrogels depend on the amount of CO2 purged. Bubbling CO2 initially induced the formation of transparent hydrogels with nanofibers. Continued purging with CO2 strengthened the hydrogel mechanically, while further addition of CO2 reduced the transparency and mechanical strength of the hydrogel. Both the transparent and opaque hydrogels reverted to transparent solutions when heated and bubbling N2. The sol-gel transition process was reversible and repeatable. The mechanical strength and transparency of the hydrogels could be improved by adding inorganic salts such as NaCl via a salting-out effect. All the hydrogel components are naturally biological compounds, making such hydrogels biocompatible and potentially useful in biomedical applications. The cholic acid dimer linked with a diethylenetriamine spacer was able to assemble in water and form isolated nanofibers in the presence of certain carboxylic acids at a much lower concentration than the CMC of sodium cholate. These nanofibers entangle with each other to yield well-dispersed and randomly-directed 3-D fibrous networks at higher concentrations. When the concentration of dimer salt is above the minimum gelation concentration, the fibrous network is strong enough to immobilize the solution, leading to the formation of an isotropic hydrogel. Further increase of the dimer salt concentration may transit the hydrogels to be anisotropic, thus the formation of nematic hydrogels. The formation of ordered domains of the aligned nanofibers led to anisotropic optical properties of the hydrogels. Stirring the aqueous systems of dimer salt also promoted the alignment of the nanofibers. These molecular hydrogels with ordered aggregates may be useful in applications such as cell culture and mechano-optical sensing.

<p>The general aim of the present project was to increase the understanding of the in vivo dissolution of poorly soluble drugs and thereby improve possibility to predict in vivo solubility from substance properties. Increased understanding of the in vivo limitations of drug solubility could potentially also generate ideas for improved formulation principles for poorly soluble compounds and more relevant in vitro dissolution test methods used in formulation development.</p><p>The dynamic gastrointestinal secretory and enzymatic responses to a liquid meal were studied in human intestinal fluid (HIF) by in vivo perfusion of a nutritional drink. The main diversity found compared to simulated intestinal fluids was the presence of dietary lipids in fed human intestinal fluid. This difference was showed to be of importance in the solubility of low soluble drugs, since this parameter was underestimated in the simulated fluid. Thus suggesting that simulated intestinal fluids should be prepared with the addition of dietary lipids for better in vitro in vivo predictions. </p><p>Solubility and dissolution determinations in fasted and fed HIF showed that the solubility was higher in fed state fluid, probably owing to the higher concentration of lipids in this media. The higher solubility was correlated to both the lipophilicity and aqueous solubility of the drug. The dissolution rate also increased, but not to the same extent as the solubility. These findings need to be considered in the design of in vitro models and in the prediction of food effects on oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs.</p><p>In addition, an in vivo porcine perfusion study was performed to investigate importance of different mechanisms in food-drug interactions. The results showed that solubilisation might be a more important factor than P-gp inhibition for food-related effects on the intestinal absorption kinetics of Class II drugs. </p>

The general aim of the present project was to increase the understanding of the in vivo dissolution of poorly soluble drugs and thereby improve possibility to predict in vivo solubility from substance properties. Increased understanding of the in vivo limitations of drug solubility could potentially also generate ideas for improved formulation principles for poorly soluble compounds and more relevant in vitro dissolution test methods used in formulation development. The dynamic gastrointestinal secretory and enzymatic responses to a liquid meal were studied in human intestinal fluid (HIF) by in vivo perfusion of a nutritional drink. The main diversity found compared to simulated intestinal fluids was the presence of dietary lipids in fed human intestinal fluid. This difference was showed to be of importance in the solubility of low soluble drugs, since this parameter was underestimated in the simulated fluid. Thus suggesting that simulated intestinal fluids should be prepared with the addition of dietary lipids for better in vitro in vivo predictions. Solubility and dissolution determinations in fasted and fed HIF showed that the solubility was higher in fed state fluid, probably owing to the higher concentration of lipids in this media. The higher solubility was correlated to both the lipophilicity and aqueous solubility of the drug. The dissolution rate also increased, but not to the same extent as the solubility. These findings need to be considered in the design of in vitro models and in the prediction of food effects on oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. In addition, an in vivo porcine perfusion study was performed to investigate importance of different mechanisms in food-drug interactions. The results showed that solubilisation might be a more important factor than P-gp inhibition for food-related effects on the intestinal absorption kinetics of Class II drugs.