The following work explores the role of 3D printing in biological anthropology. A case study approach is used to provide an understanding of two different applications for 3D printing and to identify a potential methodology for creating 3D models. Case study one looks at the application of 3D printing to reconstruction projects using a flowerpot to test the reconstruction methodology. The second case study uses both laser surface and CT scanning to create a replica of a human skeleton. The two methods of data acquisition are evaluated for advantages and limitations in creating the virtual model. This work shows that there is a role for 3D printing in biological anthropology, but that data acquisition and processing issues are the most significant limiting factors in producing skeletal replicas.

Trabecular bone forms the internal scaffolding of most bones, and consists of a microscopic lattice-like structure of interconnected bony struts. Experimental work has demonstrated that trabecular bone adapts its structural rigidity and orientation in response to the strains placed upon the skeleton during life, a concept popularly known as “Wolff’s Law” or “bone functional adaptation”. Anthropological work has focused on correlating variation in primate trabecular bone to locomotor and masticatory function, to provide a context for the interpretation of fossil morphology. However, intraspecies variation and its underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. In this thesis, variation in trabecular bone structure is examined in the human foot in four archaeological populations. The aim is to tease apart the factors underlying variation in human trabecular microstructure to determine whether it may be a suitable proxy for inferring terrestrial mobility in past populations. μCT scanning is used to image the three-dimensional trabecular structure of the talus, calcaneus, and first metatarsal in samples from four archaeological populations. Trabecular structure is quantified in seventeen volumes of interest placed throughout the foot. Trabecular bone is influenced by a variety of factors including body mass, age, diet, temperature, genetics, sex, and mechanical loading. Before trabecular structure can be used to infer habitual behaviour, the effects of these factors need to be understood and ideally statistically accounted for. Therefore, the effects of variation in bone size and shape, body mass, age, and sex on human trabecular structure are examined in four populations. Significant effects of body mass and age are reported, but little sexual dimorphism was found within populations. Taking these results into account, variation in trabecular structure is compared between archaeological populations that were divided into high and low mobility categories. Results demonstrate that the four populations show similar patterns of trabecular variation throughout the foot, with a signal of terrestrial mobility level superimposed upon it. Terrestrial mobility is associated with greater bone volume fraction and thicker, more widely spaced, and less interconnected trabeculae. Ontogeny of trabecular bone in the human calcaneus is investigated in two archaeological populations in the final chapter of the thesis. Results indicate that calcaneal trabecular bone adapts predictably to changes in loading associated with phases of gait maturation and increases in body mass. This opens the possibility of using trabecular structure to serve as a proxy of neuromuscular development in juvenile hominins. This work demonstrates that trabecular bone may serve as a useful proxy of habitual behaviour in hominin fossils and past populations when all contributing factors are carefully considered and ideally statistically controlled for.

A Amazônia tem sido palco de inúmeras discussões acerca do papel que o meio ambiente desempenha na estruturação das sociedades humanas. Até recentemente, na maior parte das discussões sobre a natureza das limitações ambientais na Amazônia, tem sido comum a escolha de fatores limitantes únicos. Nesses debates as populações Caboclas são de extrema relevância, uma vez que constituem o segmento populacional mais numeroso na Amazônia. Frente a um cenário mundial de crescentes mudanças nos padrões nutricionais, o conhecimento mais aprofundado sobre o consumo alimentar dessas populações, ainda incipiente, é de natural relevância. Assim, este estudo apresenta a comparação dos padrões de consumo alimentar de unidades domésticas assentadas em diferentes ambientes da Amazônia: a Várzea Estuarina (Ilha de Marajó, município de Ponta de Pedras-PA), a Várzea Estacional (Ilha de Ituqui, município de Santarém-PA), e a Floresta de Terra Firme (Floresta Nacional de Caxiuanã, municípios de Melgaço e Portel-PA). O objetivo principal foi determinar e comparar os padrões de consumo alimentar das unidades domésticas, principalmente no que diz respeito às calorias e proteínas, e entender como as unidades domésticas se articulam e se distribuem em relação ao ambiente em que vivem. O método utilizado para coleta de dados foi o recordatório de 24 horas. Concluiu-se, neste trabalho que: (1) existem diferenças significativas no padrão de consumo entre os diferentes ambientes estudados; (2) os padrões encontrados para os ambientes de Várzea não são mais semelhantes entre si do que em relação à Terra Firme; (3) as unidades domésticas das comunidades da Floresta de Terra Firme não parecem apresentar menor consumo de alimentos, calorias, ou proteínas do que os demais ambientes; (4) parece haver a formação de um grande grupo composto por unidades domésticas da Várzea Estuarina e da Terra Firme, ambientes de maior diversidade de alimentos, e outro grupo constituído pelas unidades domésticas da Várzea Estacional; (5) as unidades domésticas não se distribuem conforme as bacias nas quais estão assentadas. Assim, o poder explicativo do modelo de tipologia de bacias se vê comprometido, pelo menos em se tratando de ambientes, como a grande parte dos encontrados na região Amazônica, que se encontram em posições intermediárias no gradiente ambiental, não coincidindo com os protótipos de Várzea ou Terra Firme normalmente retratados na literatura. / The Amazon has been the scene of numerous discussions about the environment´s role in the structuring of human societies. Until recently, in the majority of the discussions about the nature of the environmental constraints in the Amazon, the choice of single limiting factors has been a constant. In these discussions, the Caboclo societies are very important, since they are the most numerous segment of the Amazonian population. Faced with a scenario of increasing global changes in dietary patterns, a deeper knowledge on the food intake of these populations, still in its infancy, is of natural relevance. Thus, this study presents a comparison of food consumption patterns of households settled in different Amazonian environments: the Estuarine Floodplain (Marajo Island, muncipality of Ponta de Pedras-PA), the Seasonal Floodplain (Ituqui Island, municipality of Santarem-PA), and the Upland Forest (FLONA Caxiuana, municipalities of Melgaco and Portel-PA). The main objective was to determine and compare the food consumption patterns of households, especially with regard to calories and proteins, and to understand how the households are structured and distributed in relation to their environment. The method used to collect data was the 24-hour food-recall. The conclusions of this study were: (1) there are significant differences in consumption patterns between the different environments, (2) the patterns found in the diferent Floodplains environment don´t show greater similarity (3) the households of the communities of Upland do not appear to have a lower consumption of food, calories, or protein in comparison to other environments, (4) there seems to be the formation of a large group of households that include both the Estuarine Floodplain and the Upland Forest, environments with a wider variety of foods, and another group with the households of the Seasonal Floodplain (5) the households are not distributed according to the basin in which they are settled. Thus, the explanatory power of this model finds himself committed, at least when it comes to environments, such as the majority of those found in the Amazon region, that find themselves in intermediate positions in an environmental gradient, not matching the Floodplain or Upland prototype usually portrayed in the literature.

Abstract The purpose of my thesis is to improve the reliability of physical activity reconstructions by gaining better understanding of the effects of physical activity on bone structural adaptations: musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) at muscle attachment sites and bone biomechanical properties. Bone responds to changes in mechanical loading resulting from activity and body weight. Activity reconstructions are important as they are the only means with which activity patterns of historic humans can be studied. However, MSMs have recently increased the debate about their reliability as activity indicators due to many bias factors which affect their appearance: age, size, sex and pathological changes. I studied the effects of physical activity on entheses from three perspectives. First, individuals performing heavy labour should have higher MSM scores compared to the light labour group due to elevated degree of mechanical loading at enthesis. This was studied on a population with known occupation and was among the first study designs of its kind. Second, a covariance between bone biomechanical properties and MSM was studied to infer etiology of MSM. The affects of activity and body weight on bone biomechanical properties are well known due to studies in sports medicine, whereas the causal mechanisms behind MSMs are not as clear. In theory, both should respond to stress with similar mechanisms. This is a novel approach to investigate the etiology behind MSMs. Third, if there is a possibility of site-specific adaptation of cortical bone, MSMs, which are local adaptations, can also result from site-specific stress. I found that while individuals performing heavy labour had higher scores, age-related changes in MSM override activity effects after biological maturity around 40 to 50 years. Also, MSMs and bone biomechanical properties are likely to remodel under same causal mechanisms as where there is an increase in one there is likely to be an increase in the other. Furthermore, bone has a possibility of site-specific response, as cortical thickness was increased at muscle pull sites compared to sites of no muscle pull. I propose that while MSM can be used to study the intensity of physical activity in individuals before they reach biological maturity, it is important to design studies where biasing factors, such as age, are considered. / Tiivistelmä Väitöskirjani tarkoitus on tutkia lihasten kiinnittymiskohtien mahdollisuuksia ja rajoituksia fyysisen aktiviteetin rekonstruktioissa ja näin parantaa rekonstruktioiden luotettavuutta. Aktiviteettihistoriaa voidaan tutkia lihasten kiinnittymiskohdista luun pinnalla tai luun poikkileikkauksen ominaisuuksista, koska luu reagoi muutoksiin mekaanisen rasituksen määrässä. Mekaaniseen rasitukseen vaikuttaa aktiviteetin lisäksi ruumiin koko. Aktiviteetin rekonstruktiot mahdollistavat ammatin ja harrastusten selvittämisen pelkän luustomorfologian perusteella. Ruumiin koon ja aktiviteetin lisäksi myös ikä, sukupuoli, patologiset muutokset sekä ruokavalio vaikuttavat lihasten kiinnittymiskohtiin. Tästä syystä tämän menetelmän rajoitusten selvittäminen on oleellista luotettavien rekonstruktioiden aikaansaamiseksi. Jos aktiviteetti heijastuu lihasten kiinnittymiskohtiin, raskasta ja kevyttä työtä tekevillä ihmisillä tulee olla erilainen luustomorfologia. Lisäksi, lihasten kiinnittymiskohtien morfologian sekä luun poikkileikkausten ominaisuuksien tulee muunnella yhdessä koska molemmat heijastavat aktiviteettia. Luun poikkileikkausten ominaisuuksien aktiviteettisidonnaisuus tunnetaan paremmin liikuntalääketieteellisten tutkimusten ansiosta. Kolmanneksi, jos luu voi vastata rasitukseen paikallisesti kasvattamalla luun paksuutta lihaksen vetosuuntaan nähden, myös luun pinnassa paikallisesti tapahtuvat muutokset ovat mahdollisia. Nämä ovat uusia lähestymistapoja aktiviteettia heijastavien syntymekanismien selvittämisessä. Tutkimustulosteni perusteella raskasta ja kevyttä työtä tekevillä ihmisillä on erilainen luustomorfologia lihaksen kiinnittymiskohdassa. Nämä muutokset ovat alttiita myös ikäsidonnaisille muutoksille, joten noin 40–50 ikävuoden jälkeen fyysisen aktiviteetin intensiteettiä ei voida enää luotettavasti rekonstruoida. Aktiviteetin aiheuttamien muutosten syntymekanismi lihaksen kiinnittymiskohdissa on todennäköisesti sama kuin luun poikkileikkausten ominaisuuksilla, koska molemmat muuntelevat yhdessä. Lisäksi huomasin, että luu voi reagoida rasitukseen myös paikallisesti, koska luun seinämät olivat paksumpia lihaksen vetosuunnassa verrattuna kohtaan, johon ei liittynyt suoraa lihaksen vetosuuntaa. Ehdotan, että lihasten kiinnittymiskohtia voidaan käyttää aktiviteetin rekonstruktioissa, kunhan tutkimuksessa otetaan huomioon muut vaikuttavat tekijät, kuten ikä.

There is an understanding among biological anthropologists that long bone epiphyseal shape is highly regulated by genetic and biomechanical factors. Conversely, long bone diaphyseal geometry and robusticity have been shown to respond to activity in life. The current study examined the assumption of epiphyseal consistency by exploring the relationship between a well established bony response to activity (Cross-Sectional Geometry) and shape change among the proximal humerus and femur. Long bone samples were taken from four hunter-gatherer populations: the Andaman Islanders, the Indian Knoll, Point Hope Alaskans, and the Sadlermiut. Shape was measured through landmark configurations placed on the proximal end of a total of 91 humeri and 84 femora. Cross-sectional Geometry measures (J) were taken from each specimen, as well. Principal Component Analyses were conducted on the landmark shape data to determine where the shape variation was occurring among the sample. These Principal Components were then compared via Bivariate Regression to the J values taken from the diaphysis. Significant relationships occurred between the development of the lesser tubercle and an increase in J among the humerus sample. Significant relationships were also found among the femur sample; as when J increased the proximal epiphyses were more likely to be more gracile, and the space between the femoral head and the greater trochanter increased. The humerus results indicated a more robust proximal epiphysis in groups with activities that rely heavily on the upper body, such as rowing, swimming, and harpooning. The femur results were more complex, as the relationship between activity and proximal shape is likely heavily influenced by a genetically predetermined body shape. These results indicated that there is a relationship between activity and proximal epiphyseal shape, but that it, like all relationships, is complex, and comprised of multiple factors. Ultimately, proximal long bone shape is the result of multiple influences including, activity, genetics, population adaptation, health, and many more. Future research should focus on determining if the relationship between activity and shape exists among other populations, and when and where it begins during growth and development. / Graduate

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La présente étude porte sur les aspects Nature-Culture relatifs à l’émergence de variations interindividuelles quant à la capacité universelle de régulation d’une émotion primaire, la tristesse. Cette problématique représente un exemple du lien entre la conception évolutionniste d’une nature humaine universelle, innée et génétiquement prescrite, mais susceptible de variation dans son expression en fonction d’expériences individuelles liées aux processus de socialisation et d’enculturation. À l’aide du devis génétiquement informatif des jumeaux, nous nous sommes d’abord penchés sur l’étiologie gènes-environnement de la dépression à l’enfance, une dysfonction du système de régulation émotionnelle de la tristesse. Puis, nous nous sommes interrogés quant à l’influence du traitement et de l’état psychique maternels sur cet aspect du développement émotionnel de l’enfant. Nos analyses de la symptomatologie dépressive indiquent une absence d’influence génétique dans le développement de ce trouble de l’humeur. Les variations individuelles de la régulation de la tristesse reposent ainsi uniquement sur les effets de l’environnement. Nos résultats révèlent également l’existence d’une relation importante entre l’état psychique de la mère, évalué lorsque les jumeaux avaient cinq mois, et la présence de symptômes dépressifs chez ces derniers mesurés huit ans plus tard. L’état psychique de la mère est considéré comme l’un des meilleurs indicateurs de la qualité du traitement maternel en bas âge. Nos mesures directes des comportements maternels envers le nourrisson et le développement ultérieur du trouble de dépression indiquent également l’existence de tendances statistiques allant dans le sens de notre hypothèse d’un traitement maternel sous-optimal contribuant au développement de dysfonctions émotionnelles ultérieures. / The present study explores the Nature-Nurture aspects pertaining to the emergence of interindividual variation in the emotional regulation of a primary emotion, sadness. This question is an example of the more encompassing issue of a universal human nature, biologically evolved and genetically underwritten, being nevertheless variable in its expression depending on individual experiences linked to socialization and enculturation. Using a genetically informative twin design, we explored the genetic-environmental aetiology of child depression, which is understood to be a dysfunction in the emotional regulation system of sadness. We then assessed the influences of maternal behavior and mental state on the development of children’s depressive symptoms. Our analysis of child depression shows an absence of genetic influence in the emergence of this mood disorder. Thus, individual variation in sadness regulation appears to be solely generated by environmental influences. Our results also show a strong and significant relation between maternal psychological state, assessed when the twins were 5 months of age, and children’s depressive symptoms measured 8 years later. Maternal psychological state is considered to be one of the most reliable indicators of the quality of maternal treatment in childhood. Our direct measures of maternal behavior toward the infant and the subsequent development of depressive disorder also point to statistical trends supporting our hypothesis of suboptimal maternal treatment contributing to the development of later emotional dysfunction.

Si la question de l'origine du langage reste d'un abord compliqué, celle de l'origine des formes du langage semble plus susceptible de se confronter à la démarche expérimentale. Malgré leur infinie variété, d'évidentes régularités y sont présentes : les universaux du langage. Nous les étudions par des raisonnements plus généraux sur l'émergence du langage, notamment sur la recherche de précurseurs onto- et phylogénétiques. Nous abordons trois thèmes principaux : la situation de communication parlée, les architectures cognitives des agents et l'émergence des universaux du langage dans des sociétés d'agents. Notre première contribution est un modèle conceptuel des agents communicants en interaction, issu de notre analyse bibliographique. Nous en proposons ensuite une formalisation mathématique Bayésienne : le modèle d'un agent est une distribution de probabilités, et la production et la perception sont des inférences bayésiennes. Cela permet la comparaison formelle des différents courants théoriques en perception et en production de la parole. Enfin, nos simulations informatiques de société d'agents identifient les conditions qui favorisent l'apparition des universaux du langage.

La première partie étudie la conception de la réception dans l'ensemble de l'œuvre cervantine. On mesure pourquoi l'auteur dénonce les récits chevaleresques, pastoraux et sentimentaux, coupables de provoquer une emprise fictionnelle exagérée et de proposer de dangereux modèles de comportements.<br />Les Nouvelles exemplaires (Novelas ejemplares) leur répondent par la reprise de scénarios tirés des contes de fées et des mythes tragiques (2e).<br />L'exemplarité se définit par la poétique sous-jacente à ces deux modèles : celle de l'initiation (3e). La thèse dégage deux axes d'éducation : l'initiation à l'humanité et l'éducation sentimentale. Cervantès propose d'abord quelques normes d'une « chevalerie » modernisée: placé au cœur de la cité, le héros exemplaire est l'instrument d'une véritable « civilisation des mœurs ». Sur la question sentimentale, le conte merveilleux se révèle fort pertinent: sa trame permet de conduire nos protagonistes vers l'heureux mariage en les contraignant à adopter une posture volontariste.