Today, buildings utilize 40 % of the total energy consumption. New energyrestrictions and directives have entered the construction industry. Photovoltaic is asustainable, clean and quiet solution that integrates well in the urban environment buthave not yet reached a breakthrough on the Swedish market. The conditions for solarenergy production are often set in the early planning stages where they rarely arebeing prioritized.This master of engineering project focuses on identifying problems regardingimplementation of photovoltaic in city development projects and giving suggestions topossible improvements in the planning- and construction process. It also givesrecommendations on how the conditions for energy production can be optimized inthe early zoning stage.By conducting simulations with PVsystV5.21, on three ongoing city developmentprojects in Umeå, Malmö and Stockholm and by carry out and analyzing interviewswith city planners, constructors and architects, some conclusions have been made.Several improvements, both politically, with changes in the subsidization systemand/or instatement of a new law with feed-in tariffs, and within the solar- andconstruction industry itself, with better communication between different parts of theprocess as well as better use of experience, can be made. By including photovoltaic inthe local plan it is possible to give a region large areas with orientation toward south,increasing the solar energy potential with up to 50 % which also increase themotivation for implementing photovoltaic in the project. These are essential for asignificant increase of photovoltaic in city development.

As edificações comerciais, públicas e residenciais foram responsáveis em 2014 por 50% do consumo de eletricidade no país. Considerando os últimos dez anos, enquanto o consumo médio dos diferentes setores da economia cresceu 3,5% ao ano, o consumo do setor comercial cresceu 5,4%. Os edifícios de escritórios corporativos representam grandes consumidores de energia, chegando a valores superiores aos 200 kWh/m2.ano. A geração distribuída é uma solução que vem sendo estudada no país, primeiramente pela aprovação da Resolução Técnica 482:2012 da ANEEL, que regulamenta a geração de eletricidade na baixa tensão e depois pela aprovação da Portaria 381:2015 que dispõe sobre a geração de eletricidade na média tensão. Apesar do crescimento da geração por fontes fotovoltaicas no mundo, no Brasil essa geração ainda é mínima frente às fontes hídricas e térmicas. Nos edifícios de escritórios corporativos a instalação de painéis fotovoltaicos na cobertura é bastante limitada, devido à disputa de espaço com outros serviços, como as áreas técnicas e heliponto. Nesse contexto, as fachadas aparecem como oportunidade para geração de eletricidade, através da tecnologia fotovoltaica integrada na arquitetura (BIPV). Nesse estudo foi avaliada a viabilidade técnica e financeira da geração integrada à arquitetura dos edifícios de escritórios corporativos da cidade de São Paulo a partir do uso de vidros fotovoltaicos. Os resultados indicam que existe um potencial de redução de 15% no consumo de eletricidade anual, considerando tanto a geração de eletricidade, quanto a redução do consumo do sistema de ar condicionado, que tem sua carga térmica reduzida com o uso dos vidros fotovoltaicos. A tecnologia já é viável financeiramente no mercado brasileiro quando associada ao vidro refletivo, apresentando um tempo de retorno simples de 2,9 anos, uma TIR de 34,2% e um VPL de 1.779.257,53, para um edifício em torre com 28.010 m2 de área condicionada e 21 andares. / Commercial, public and residential buildings accounted in 2014 for 50% of electricity consumption in Brazil. Considering the last ten years, while the average consumption of the different sectors of the economy increased by 3.5% per year, the consumption of the commercial sector grew 5.4%. Corporate buildings are major energy consumers, reaching values in the range of 200 kWh/m2.year. Distributed generation is a solution that has been studied in the country, primarily with the approval of the Technical Resolution 482:2012, which regulates the generation of electricity at low voltage and then with the approval of the General Ordinance 381:2015 which regulates the generation of electricity at medium voltage. Despite the growth in generation from photovoltaic sources in the world, in Brazil this generation is still minimal when compared to other sources, like hydro and thermal plants. In commercial buildings, the space to install photovoltaic panels on the roof is quite limited. In this context the facades appear as an opportunity to generate electricity through photovoltaic technology integrated in the architecture (BIPV). In this study we evaluated the technical and financial feasibility of the integrated generation to the architecture of corporate buildings in the city of Sao Paulo. The results indicate a 15% reduction potential in annual electricity consumption, considering both the electricity generation and the reduction of the consumption by the air conditioning system, which has a reduced thermal load when photovoltaic glass is used. The BIPV technology is already feasible in the Brazilian market when coupled with reflective glass, showing a simple payback of 2.9 years, an IRR of 34.2% and a NPV of 1,779,257.53, for a building with 28,010 m2 and 21 floors.

La réduction de la consommation des bâtiments passe par : l'économie d'énergie, l'efficacité énergétique et l'utilisation des énergies renouvelables. Sur ce dernier point, l'intégration à grande échelle de composants photovoltaïques (PV) est une solution. Le rendement et la durée de vie des cellules PV en silicium cristalin diminuant avec l'augmentation de leur température de fonctionnement, il est essentiel de mettre au point des configurations d'intégration limitant leur échauffement. L'intégration en configuration de double-peau – la surface PV est séparée du bâtiment par une lame d'air – est une solution prometteuse. Sous l'effet de la chaleur, un écoulement de convection naturelle se met en place entre les deux parois, refroidissant ainsi les panneaux PV. Cet écoulement peut également servir de moteur pour la ventilation en été, et de préchauffage de l'air en hiver. Cette étude, expérimentale, fait partie d'un projet visant à comprendre le fonctionnement des double-peaux PV en analysant séparément les différents phénomènes physiques avant de prendre en compte l'ensemble des couplages. Elle porte plus particulièrement sur la convection naturelle au sein des double-façades verticales. Ici, la double-peau est modélisée par un canal vertical dont les deux parois principales sont chauffées sous des conditions de flux imposé. Un banc d'essais a été développé pour étudier la convection naturelle dans un canal vertical en eau. L'eau a été choisie pour se placer dans le cas d'un écoulement de convection pure (pas de rayonnement entre les parois). C'est un canal vertical de 65 cm de haut avec un écartement réglable placé dans une cuve de 1,5 m de haut contenant 160 L d'eau. Les parois sont chauffées à l'aide de 24 chaufferettes indépendantes délivrant un flux de chaleur uniforme, ce qui permet d'appliquer différentes configurations de chauffage. Des mesures de flux et de température sont réalisées au niveau des parois, et un système couplant de la velocimétrie laser Doppler deux composantes à un micro-thermocouple (25 μm) a été développé pour avoir accès aux vitesses verticale et horizontale et à la température dans le canal. Ce banc et son instrumentation sont décrits et les incertitudes de mesure associées ont été caractérisées. La configuration de chauffage uniforme symétrique a été étudiée ici pour différentes puissances injectées. Les profils de vitesse et de température moyennes mettent en évidence la présence d'un changement de régime d'écoulement dans le canal pour un nombre de Rayleigh indéntifié. L'étude approfondie des profils des fluctuations de vitesse et de température a permis de mettre au point une modélisation comportementale de ce changement de régime. De plus, une première approche est développée pour évaluer la pression dans le canal à partir de l'analyse et de l'estimation des différents termes de l'équation de conservation de la quantité de mouvement. / Reducing the building consumption passes through : energy saving, energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy sources for a local production of electricity. For the last point, the building integrated photovoltaic systems represent a promising solution. However, electrical yield and life time of silicon solar cells decrease with the increase of its operating temperature, that is why integrated configurations which limits cell overheating must be developed. The solution considered is the double-skin façade configuration : photovoltaic panels are separated from the building wall(or roof) by an opened air channel. This induces a natural convection flow that cools the rear surface of the photovoltaic panels. This flow can also be used for natural ventilation of buildings in summer or for air preheating in winter. This experimental study is part of a project on photovoltaic double-skin façades. In this project, each physical phenomena are analysed separately first, and the coupling between the different phenomena are studied in a second time. This thesis deals with the natural convection into the vertical double-skin façades. The system is modelled by a vertical channel with isoflux heating at the two mains walls. An experimental apparatus was developed in the laboratory for studying natural convection in water in a vertical channel. Water is used as the working fluid to avoid radiative heat transfer and obtain a pure convective flow. The channel is 65 cm high with an adjustable gap. It is placed in a 1.5 m high glass tank filled with 160 L of distilled water. The main walls are heated through 24 independant electrical heaters maintaining a constant heat flux, which allows differents boundary condition (symmetrical, asymmetrical, uniforme, alternated, etc). Heat flux and temperature measurements are made at the walls. The velocity (horizontal and vertical) and temperature of the flow are measured through a two components Laser Doppler Velocimetry system combined with a micro-thermocouple (25 μm diameter). This apparatus is described in details and the measurement uncertainties were characterized. The symmetrical uniform heating configuration was studied here with the analyse of velocity and temperature profiles in the channel for several input power (46 W to 562 W). These profiles show a change in flow regime in the channel that is analysed with turbulent quantities along the channel. Moreover, the pressure is estimated in the channel from the analysis of all the terms of the momentum conservation equations.

Face à la problématique énergétique, les solutions envisagées dans le domaine du bâtiment s’orientent sur un mix énergétique favorisant la production locale ainsi que l’autoconsommation. Concernant l’électricité, les systèmes photovoltaïques intégrés au bâtiment (BiPV) représentent l’une des rares technologies capables de produire de l’électricité localement et sans émettre de gaz à effet de serre. Cependant, le niveau de température auquel fonctionnent ces composants, influence sensiblement leur efficacité ainsi que leur durée de vie. Ces deux constats mettent en lumière l’importance du refroidissement passif par convection naturelle de ces modules. La configuration privilégiée est une configuration d’intégration au sein d’une enveloppe ventilée qualifiée de double-peau photovoltaïque. La présente étude expérimentale porte sur les transferts de chaleur et les caractéristiques de l’écoulement en convection naturelle dans des canaux chauffés verticaux ou inclinés. Deux bancs d’essais existants ont été complétés afin d’obtenir des données. Ils sont composés de deux plaques planes parallèles séparées par une lame d’air. Les parois sont soumises à des conditions aux limites de type densité de flux imposée. Les températures moyennes à la paroi ont été mesurées par thermocouples. Un système de vélocimétrie par image de particules a permis d’obtenir des profils de vitesse moyenne ainsi que les distributions d’intensité turbulente dans l’écoulement. Les champs de vitesse instantanée ont également été examinés. Trois configurations ont été étudiées avec un nombre de Rayleigh variant entre 3,86 x 105 et 6,22 x 106. La première est un canal vertical avec une des deux parois chauffée uniformément. La seconde est un canal vertical dans lequel les deux parois sont chauffées de façon non-uniforme et alternée. La troisième est de type canal incliné chauffé uniformément sur la paroi supérieure. Le rapport de forme du canal (largeur/hauteur) est de 1/15 pour le deux premières configurations et de 1/16 pour la troisième. Une attention particulière a été portée sur l’identification de la zone de transition laminaire-turbulent. L’étude a permis de mettre en évidence la sensibilité de l’écoulement aux perturbations extérieures. Pour un chauffage uniforme et asymétrique, à partir d’un nombre de Rayleigh Ra* de 3.5 x 106 et pour θ = 60° et 90°, il a été constaté que la propagation de structures cohérentes dans le canal a lieu à partir de la mi-hauteur de ce canal. Ces instabilités favorisent alors les transferts thermiques. Dans le cas d’un chauffage non-uniforme sur les deux parois du canal, l’écoulement est fortement perturbé ce qui conduit à l’augmentation du brassage et de la contrainte de Reynolds sur la majorité de la largeur du canal. Enfin, pour chacune des configurations, des corrélations permettant de quantifier les transferts de chaleur à la paroi et au sein de la lame d’air (nombre de Nusselt moyen en fonction du nombre de Rayleigh) ont été établies. / Among technologies capable to produce electricity locally without contributing to GHG releases, building integrated PV systems (BIPV) could be major contributor. However, when exposed to intense solar radiation, the temperature of PV modules increase significantly, leading to a reduction in efficiency so that only about 14% of the incident radiation is converted into electrical energy. The high temperature also decrease the life of the modules, thereby making passive cooling of the PV components through natural convection a desirable and cost-effective means of overcoming both difficulties. An experimental investigation of heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of natural convection of air in vertical and inclined open-ended heated channels is therefore undertaken so as provide reliable information for the design of BIPV. Two experimental set ups were developed and used during the present investigations; one located at the CETHIL laboratory in Lyon, the F-device and the other located at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, the R-device. Both channels consisted of two wide parallel plates each of which could be subjected to controlled uniform or non-uniform heat fluxes. The investigation has been conducted by analyzing the mean wall temperatures, measured by thermocouples and mean velocity profiles and turbulent quantity distributions of the flow, measured with a PIV system. Flow patterns close to the heated faces were also investigated. The study is particularly focused on the transition region from laminar to turbulent flow. Three different heating geometric arrangements are examined in the modified Rayleigh number range from 3.86 x 105 to 6.22 x 106. The first is a vertical channel with one wall uniformly heated while the other was unheated, the second was a vertical channel in which both walls were non-uniformly heated and the third is an inclined channel uniformly heated from above. In the vertical configurations the width-to-height channel aspect ratio was fixed at 1:15 and in the inclined ones at 1:16. It is shown that the flow is very sensitivity to disturbances emanating from the ambient conditions. Moreover, the propagation of vortical structures and unsteadiness in the flow channel which are necessary to enhance heat transfer, occurred downstream of the mid-channel section at Ra* = 3.5 x 106 for uniformly and asymmetrically heated channels inclined between 60° and 90° to the horizontal. Indeed, these unsteady flow phenomena appears upstream the location of the inflexion point observed in the temperature excess distribution of the heated wall. In the case of non-uniform heating on both sides of the channel, a stronger ‘disruption mechanism’ exists, which leads to enhanced mixing and increased Reynolds stresses over most of the width of the channel. Empirical correlations of average Nusselt number as a function of modified Rayleigh number were obtained for each configuration.

Buildings both commercial and residential are the largest consumers of electricity. Integrating Photovoltaic technology in building architecture or Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) provides an effective means for meeting this huge energy demands and provides an energy hub at the place of its immediate requirement. However, this technology is challenged with problems like low efficiency and high cost. An effective way of improving the solar cell efficiency and reducing the cost of photovoltaic systems is either by reducing solar cell manufacturing cost or illuminating the solar cells with a higher light intensity than is naturally available by the use of optical concentrators which is also known as Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) technology. Integrating this technology in the architecture is referred as Building integrated Concentrating Photovoltaics (BICPV). This thesis presents a detailed performance analysis of different designs used as BICPV systems and proposes further advancements necessary for improving the system design and minimizing losses. The systems under study include a Dielectric Asymmetric Compound Parabolic Concentrator (DiACPC) designed for 2.8×, a three-dimensional Cross compound parabolic concentrator (3DCCPC) designed for 3.6× and a Square Elliptical Hyperbolic (SEH) concentrator designed for 6×. A detailed analysis procedure is presented showcasing the optical, electrical, thermal and overall analysis of these systems. A particular issue for CPV technology is the non-uniformity of the incident flux which tends to cause hot spots, current mismatch and reduce the overall efficiency of the system. Emphasis is placed on modelling the effects of non-uniformity while evaluating the performance of these systems. The optical analysis of the concentrators is carried out using ray tracing and finite element methods are employed to determine electrical and thermal performance of the system. Based on the optical analysis, the outgoing flux from the concentrators is predicted for different incident angles for each of the concentrators. A finite element model for the solar cell was developed to evaluate its electrical performance using the outputs obtained from the optical analysis. The model can also be applied for the optimization of the front grid pattern of Si Solar cells. The model is further coupled within the thermal analysis of the system, where the temperature of the solar cell is predicted under operating conditions and used to evaluate the overall performance under steady state conditions. During the analysis of the DiACPC it was found that the maximum cell temperature reached was 349.5 K under an incident solar radiation of 1000 W/m2. Results from the study carried on the 3DCCPC showed that a maximum cell temperature of 332 K is reached under normal incidence, this tends to bring down the overall power production by 14.6%. In the case of the SEH based system a maximum temperature of 319 K was observed on the solar cell surface under normal incidence. An average drop of 11.7% was found making the effective power ratio of the system 3.4. The non-uniformity introduced due to the concentrator profile causes hotspots in the BICPV system. The non-uniformity was found to reduce the efficiency of the solar cell in the range of 0.5-1 % in all the three studies. The overall performance can be improved by addressing losses occurring within different components of the system. It was found that optical losses occurred at the interface region formed due to the encapsulant spillage along the edges of the concentrator. Using a reflective film along the edge of the concentrating element was found to improve the optical efficiency of the system. Case studies highlighting the improvement are presented. A reflective film was attached along the interface region of the concentrator and the encapsulant. In the case of a DiACPC, an increase of 6% could be seen in the overall power production. Similar case study was performed for a 3DCCPC and a maximum of 6.7% was seen in the power output. To further improve the system performance a new design incorporating conjugate reflective-refractive device was evaluated. The device benefits from high optical efficiency due to the reflection and greater acceptance angle due to refraction. Finally, recommendations are made for development of a new generation of designs to be used in BiCPV applications. Efforts are made towards improving the overall performance and reducing the non-uniformity of the concentrated illumination.

This thesis aims to design and simulate a building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system for three demo buildings in Ludvika, Sweden, which is part of the Energy- Matching’s project under the European H2020 research scheme. A literature review was firstly conducted in the area of energy scenarios, engineering tools, methodologies and the workflows in design and building energy modelling. Then, this thesis developed the three-dimensional (3D) building models of the demo site, based on the Revit – a building information modelling (BIM) tool. Next, the PVSITES tool was considered as the main approach to simulate and optimize the BIPV system. Results on the energy output of the dedicated BIPV system, as well as financial costs, were finally obtained. It was found that the optimal location for the BIPV system was on the three buildings south and east faced roofs, with a total area of approximately 800 meters squared (m2) and a yearly irradiance potential between 1020 kilowatts hours per meter squared (kWh/m2) and 925 kWh/m2 respectively. The simulation showed that this BIPV system of 615 m2 with a power of 36 kilowatts-peak (kWp) could yield a maximum of 29,000 kilowatts hours per year (kWh), a 5% of the total yearly energy demand of the building and over the summer, this percentage increases considerably. With the estimated standards costs, the BIPV system have a 12 years payback period and 61% investment ratio over a 20 years period, concluding that a BIPV system on the Ludvika demo building is a feasible project, in terms of energy potential and as well as economically. This thesis also concludes that performing the BIPV simulation on the BIM platform is both reliable and flexible, and also has the potential to be reused, refined and scaled up.

Byggnadssektorn står idag för en betydande del av den totala konsumerade energin i världen. God och hälsosam livsmiljö kan uppnås med ökad användning av förnybara energikällor. Ett essentiellt kriterium är att integrera solceller i byggnader. Lindholmens Tekniska Gymnasium är i behov utav nya lokaler, där efterfrågas en integration av solceller i byggnadens klimatskal. Solcellsprodukter utformas ofta med fokus på energiproduktionen, och inte på deras design. Vid en lyckad integration skall den estetiska kravbilden så som den funktionella och tekniska uppfyllas. Detta skall göras med hänsyn till den arkitektoniska kvaliteten. I den här rapporten framställs ett förslag till valet av solceller, med syftet att påvisa en integrering av solceller ur ett arkitektoniskt fördelaktigt perspektiv.

Photovoltaic technology is among the best tools our civilization has to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gas that are currently altering the atmosphere composition of our planet. The idea of using photovoltaic surfaces on the envelope of buildings is called with the acronym of BIPV (building integrated photovoltaics), it offers the advantage of producing energy in the same location of the demand for electricity. Furthermore, BIPV allows to save monetary and environmental costs by substituting building materials with photovoltaic collectors. As every technology,BIPV follows an adoption pattern that is bringing it from a very limited niche product to a pervasive one. Nevertheless, the adoption rate of BIPV appears to be slow, and the industry has offered little opportunities of business for its stakeholders over the last 20 years. There are multiple reasons for this sluggish growth, and a considerable body of scientific literature has offered potential solutions to the problem. The building industry is notoriously slow in picking up innovation, furthermore the BIPV material needs to compete with much more mature, versatile and often cheaper cladding technologies and materials. Numerous research endeavors are focusing on the development of new BIPV claddings to have diversified colors, dimensions, shapes and other properties. The argument is that the technology is not mature and thus cannot be adopted by the bulk of architects and designers. Unfortunately, the premium characteristics of these new materials often come with a higher price and a reduced efficiency, thus reducing their market potential. Other research endeavors, among which this thesis, are focusing on the design of buildings: trying to include the use of photovoltaics into the architectural practice through education and software development. Numerous software has been developed over the last 20 years with the aim of calculating the productivity or the economic outlook of a BIPV system. The main difference between the existing software and the method presented here lies in the following fact: previously, the capacity and positions of a BIPV system are required as input for the calculation of performance, in this method the capacity and positions of the BIPV system are given as the output of an optimization process. A designer whois skeptical or disengaged about the use of BIPV could be induced to avoid its use entirely by the discouraging simulation results given by the lack of a techno-economic optimal configuration. Conversely, a designer who opt for a premium architectural PV material would, thank to the methodology shown, be able to assess the impact its unitary cost has on the optimal BIPV capacity of the building. Ultimately, the method presented provides new knowledge to the designer regarding the use of BIPV on his building, hopefully this can facilitate the spread of BIPV technology. The method described was translated into a software tool to find the best positions and number of PV surfaces over the envelope of the building and the best associated battery capacity. The tool is based on the combined use of ray-tracing (for irradiation calculation) and optimization algorithms, its use led to the following conclusions: • BIPV is profitable under a wide range of assumptions if installedin the correct capacities • 20% of the residential electric demand can easily be covered by PV without the need for electric storage and in a profitable way • Despite an interesting rate of return of the investment, the payback time was generally found to be long (over 10 years) • More research is needed to assess the risk on the investment on BIPV: if found to be low, future financial mechanisms could increase its spread despite the long payback time • The optimal capacity in energy terms (i.e. the energy consumed on-site minus the energy used to produce a BIPV system) tends to be far higher than any techno-economic optimum • The specific equivalent CO2 emissions for an NPV optimal system have been found to be between 70 and 123 [kg CO2 eq/MWh] under the range of assumptions applied • The installation of optimal BIPV capacity could change the overall residential CO2 emission of -12%, +13%, -29% in England, France and Greece respectively • despite the non optimal placement of a BIPV system compared to a ground mounted, south oriented one, and despite the noncontemporaneity of production and consumption, the BIPV still easily outperforms the energy mix of most countries when optimized for maximum NPV. • The part of the building envelope that have the most annual irradiation (i.e. the roof) should not necessarily host the entirety of the system as other facades might have an advantage in terms of matching production and consumption times. • when different scenarios are made in terms of techno-economic input parameters (e.g. degradation of the system, future costs of maintenance, future variation of electricity price etc..) larger capacities are optimal for optimistic outlooks and vice-versa • the optimal capacity for the expected scenario (i.e. the 50 % ile) can be considered robust as it performs close to the optimum in optimistic and pessimistic scenarios alike. • a reduction in price for the electric storage appears to have a positive effect on the optimal capacity of PV installed for the case study considered. • when a group of households is optimized separately V.S. aggregated together, the aggregation have a huge positive effect on all KPIs of the resulting system: in the NPV optimal system of a case study examined the installed capacity ( +118%), the NPV ( +262.2%) and the self-sufficiency( +51%) improved thanks to aggregation.

Dans le contexte énergétique actuel, le développement de l'énergie solaire passe par son développement à grande échelle en milieu urbain. Les solutions actives et intégrées telles que les double-façades photovoltaïques permettent d'une part d'envisager une valorisation de la chaleur et d'autre part de valoriser l'enveloppe des bâtiments en tant que surface de captation. De plus, cette configuration limite la perte de rendement et l'accélération du vieillissement liées à la surchauffe des cellules. En effet, les composants photovoltaïques sont séparés du bâtiment par une lame d'air et la convection naturelle développée dans cet espace favorise l'évacuation de la chaleur absorbée par les panneaux. Cependant, le comportement global d'une double-façade photovoltaïque est très complexe et encore mal compris. Cette thèse se focalise sur l'expérimentation du phénomène de la convection naturelle. Un banc d'essais, développé dans le cadre de la thèse de Daverat, modélise la double-façade par un canal vertical avec chauffage pariétal. Le fluide d'étude est de l'eau afin de s'affranchir du rayonnement entre parois et d'étudier le couplage conduction-convection. Le banc d'essais est constitué d'un canal vertical de 65cm de haut, chauffé à une densité de flux uniforme, plongé dans une cellule de 1,5m de haut remplie d'eau. L'écoulement est observé par des mesures de densité de flux de chaleur, de température pariétale et de vitesse, ces dernières étant réalisées par vélocimétrie par images de particules et par vélocimétrie laser Doppler. Deux configurations de chauffage sont étudiées : symétrique et asymétrique. Pour l'étude de la configuration avec un chauffage symétrique, les données expérimentales issues du travail de thèse de Daverat sont analysées par une approche zonale. Un découpage du canal est proposé et une analyse des ordres de grandeur permet de comprendre les observations expérimentales. Ainsi, cette analyse se focalise sur le transfert thermique aux parois, l'évolution de la pression dans le canal et sur les fluctuations, en particulier, sur l'évaluation du terme croisé du tenseur de Reynolds. La configuration d'un chauffage asymétrique est étudiée expérimentalement pour la phase de démarrage et le régime stationnaire. Pour la phase de démarrage, la caractérisation des premières heures à partir de la mise en chauffage de la paroi est réalisée en termes de température pariétale, de vitesse et de comportement bi-/tri-dimensionnel de l'écoulement. Un écoulement de retour de grande échelle est mis en évidence. L'impact de la stratification thermique externe du canal est également étudié. Pour le régime stationnaire, les analyses sont réalisées sur des données pour lesquels le régime est considéré établi. Les comportements thermique et dynamique sont étudiés et mettent en évidence deux états distincts. Des écoulements de retour sont également observés. Enfin, les influences du nombre de Prandtl et de l'écartement du canal sont discutées. / Under the current energy context, the development of solar energy goes through its large scale development, especially in urban areas. Active and integrated solutions, such as photovoltaic double-skins, allow both the heat recovery for building needs and the exploitation of building envelope as collecting surface. Furthermore, this configuration limits the efficiency loss and the acceleration of ageing process due to overheating of the solar cells. Indeed, in this configuration, the photovoltaic panels are separated from the building by an air channel and the thermally driven flow that develops in the channel helps to evacuate the heat absorbed by the panels. However, the global behaviour of the photovoltaic double-skin is complex and not yet fully understood. This study is part of a scientific project on multi-scale modelling and experimentation of BIPV components. It focuses on the experimentation of the natural convection phenomenon in double-façades. An experimental apparatus developed during C. Daverat's thesis models the double-façade by a vertical channel with wall heating. The working fluid is water so as to avoid radiative heat transfer between walls. The experimental apparatus consists of a 65 cm high vertical channel, with isoflux heating, immersed in a 1.5 m high water tank. The fluid flow is instrumented with measurements of heat flux, wall temperature and velocity. The velocity measurements are made by Particle Image Velocimetry and Laser Doppler Velocimetry. Two heating configurations are studied: symmetrical (same heat flux is imposed on both walls) and asymmetrical (only one wall is heated, the other one being adiabatic). For the study with symmetrical heating configuration, experimental data from Daverat's thesis are analysed by a zonal approach. The channel is split into several zones and a scaling analysis is conducted in order to explain experimental observations. Thus, the study focuses on heat transfer, pressure evolution in the channel and fluctuations, in particular, the evaluation of the maximum Reynolds stress. The asymmetrical configuration is studied for the transient regime and the steady regime. For the transient regime, early stage (first hours) is characterised in terms of wall temperature, velocity and two- or three-dimensional flow behaviour. A large-scale reversal flow is observed. The impact of external thermal stratification is also studied. For the steady regime, thermal and dynamic behaviours are studied and two different states are distinguished and characterised. Reversal flows are also observed. Finally, the influence of the Prandtl number and the channel width is discussed.

In line with the expansion of the building industry, future projects like buildings and infrastructure require high demands on energy issues. EU directives and major global goals constantly set guidelines for what should be done and not. Construction and architecture companies in Sweden can influence what future cities will look like. This requires knowledge in these issues, not least about solar cell facades. Solar panels are mostly applied to roofs and big fields directed upwards towards the sun, but could one imagine solar cells integrated or applied to the facade of a building? This is what this thesis is about, and how the market looks today for these technologies in 2019. Therefore, the purpose is to compare solar cell technologies and attachment possibilities on facades of buildings. The goal is to give architects insight into how they are and can be used for future facade solutions. Most of the work has consisted of literature studies from books, reports research and the internet. The results turned out to be that the techniques are under a maturing phase after intensive research has been made in the field of solar cells, as well as increased use, lower prices and more efficient techniques. Today, it is possible to utilize solar cell facades in Sweden and other countries around the world. The sun is a renewable energy source that can cover the majority of the world's energy and electricity needs.