Thesis (M. Sc. (Hons.))--University of Western Sydney, 2001. / "Research thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Honours) Social Ecology, School of Social Ecology and Lifelong Learning, University of Western Sydney, August 2001." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 398-400).

The ancient Chinese I Ching, the Book of Changes, and the philosophy of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) both assert that the universe exists in a state of change. The I Ching, originally a book of divination, illustrates the changing phenomena of the natural world in terms of sixty-four hexagrams, which are figures composed of six lines  yielding and firm lines, representing actual conditions and relationships existing in the world and caused by the interplay between two primordial forces, yin and yang. The I Ching shows that on the macro level the Tao works in the universe, in heaven and on earth, and on the micro level it applies to man. The I Ching teaches harmony with Tao and its power (natural law and moral law), so that its reader may take appropriate action in any given situation with reference to the hexagrams and their appended judgments as revealed by the oracle. Nietzsche, however, regards the world as the Will to Power, ‘a monster of energy’, like a storming and flooding ocean eternally changing, where harmony and order seems impossible. His mouthpiece, Zarathustra, who teaches the Übermensch, encourages a war-like attitude towards life. Zarathustra’s second metamorphosis of an evolving spirit, the warrior lion, marks the difference between the Nietzschean Übermensch and the Chinese sage who attains harmony and balance within and without, a mysterious union with heaven. Zarathustra’s third metamorphosis, a playing child, creates itself as its own ‘bridge’ through a process of self-overcoming, whereas the I Ching indicates order to be the ‘bridge’ over chaos, the order of the human world being expressed in the five cardinal relationships. Whereas the I Ching advises its reader to follow their own nature and fate in order to lead a harmonious moral life, Nietzsche’s Übermensch is ‘the annihilator of morality’ and paradoxically ‘the designation of a type of supreme achievement’ (EH Books 1). With his idea of the Übermensch, Nietzsche indicates that morality is a pose (BGE 216). He seeks to make us become aware that we should invent our own virtue and create our own way in order to become what we are. He criticizes Christian morality, calling himself ‘the first immoralist’. His shocking approach attempts to make us become aware of the possibility that a ‘noble morality’ and ‘higher moralities’ ought to be possible. His Übermensch represents such a higher mode of existence. Zarathustra also teaches the doctrine of eternal recurrence, implying that moment is eternity, changelessness within change. Multifarious manifestations are the expression of the Tao. Everything is interconnected and interdependent. Whereas ordinary men see the continuity of phenomena as real, enlightened beings are aware of the transitory and illusive nature of the self and all things. The Nietzschean Übermensch embodies the characteristics of an enlightened being, a Buddha or Bodhisattva in Buddhist terms, characteristics such as wisdom and compassion. Therefore, the practice of the Bodhisattva is explored as a feasible way for actualizing the Nietzschean hypothetical Übermensch. / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Philosophy / unrestricted

Ce mémoire étudie les représentations de la volonté humaine dans le Soûtra de l’Entrée dans la dimension absolue. L’exégèse du récit révèle dans un premier temps que l’insatisfaction (duḥkha s.) qui imprègne l’existence est en partie causée par la soif (tṛṣṇā s.). Or, notre analyse montre que c’est en faisant usage de leur volonté – source à priori de liberté et de possibilité infinies – que les êtres s’abandonnent systématiquement à leurs sentiments assoiffés et, à terme, perpétuent le cycle infernal des existences. C’est donc sans surprise que la volonté est désignée comme une faculté négative à proscrire de la pratique par les maîtres spirituels du soûtra. Cette indication, simple, mais capitale, doit absolument être suivie par le pratiquant pour qu’il atteigne l’Éveil et participe au bien commun. Le problème, cependant, est que la libération implique nécessairement l’usage de la volonté – dans les voeux, la compassion et la persévérance par exemple. La volonté présente en cela des aspects positifs, mais son potentiel négatif demeure et une question surgit : comment l’éthique du soûtra peut-elle effectivement mener à des effets positifs en étant liée à cette faculté ? Pour répondre à cette question, nous nous rapportons à la conception de la dimension absolue, l’enseignement final du soûtra. Dans cet espace, la volonté se libère de tout conditionnement et une nouvelle manière d’appréhender la posture psychologique des êtres éveillés apparait : la non-volonté. / This dissertation considers representations of human will in chapter 39 of The Flower Ornament Scripture, entitled “Entering the Realm of Reality”. An exegesis of the narrative reveals that the dissatisfaction (duḥkha s.) that permeates existence is partly caused by thirst (tṛṣṇā s.). However, our analysis shows that by exercising their will – a source a priori of infinite freedom and possibility – beings systematically abandon themselves to their thirsty feelings and, in the long run, perpetuate the infernal cycle of existence. Unsurprisingly, will is considered a negative faculty, to be proscribed from practice by the spiritual masters of the sutra; this simple but essential teaching must be followed by the practitioner so that he can reach Enlightenment and participates in the common good. The problem, however, is that liberation necessarily implies the exercise of will, for example in taking vows or practicing compassion and perseverance. Though the exercise of will can have positive aspects, its negative potential remains, leading us to ask: how can the ethics of the sutra actually lead to positive effects if it is connected to will? To answer this question, we refer to the conception of the realm of reality, the final teaching of the sutra. In this realm, the will frees itself from all conditioning and a new way of apprehending the psychological posture of enlightened beings appears: the non-will.

For many decades, Buddhism in the West has been conceived as an ‘other-worldly’ religion with very little or –at least—limited authority in the public arena. This partial view of the Buddhist path overlooks the potential of Buddhism to interpret reality and help establish new causes and conditions to improve it. This thesis is rooted in Buddhism and seeks to develop a Buddhist theology in order to understand how international relations, as part of the contingent reality, are subject to change. Thus there is the possibility of reconstructing reality through the sum of individual will expressed in social groups, institutions and states. This Theology of International Relations follows a methodology of causality rooted in the dependent origination found in Buddhist theology. Thus, relative reality is conceived as the result of the interaction of different causes and conditions; individuals, through their thoughts and actions, provide new conditions which will be crystallized in particular social arrangements through an inter-subjective consensus. This arrangement is highly influenced by the individual’s allegiance with the sacred, however this is conceived, and thus establishes an ethical guideline in the individual’s relationship with other sentient beings and the ultimate level of existence. This dependent construction of reality goes from the individual level of analysis to the social, state, interstate and global levels in a chain of contingent reality. Therefore I suggest that states, institutions and society are the reflection of shared ideas, beliefs, goals and perceptions of reality between individuals. The human capacity to shape reality is rooted in the premise that they face a relative reality, one that is contingent on several causes and conditions. In Buddhism, all sentient beings play a key role in shaping reality but human beings play a unique role because they can overcome suffering when they recognize the interdependent relation of causes and conditions in a relative reality. If this is achieved, then absolute reality can be experienced, wherein the individual goes beyond all conceptions and senses in a state of emptiness of the self. These core ideas of a contingent reality, its construction through an inter-subjective consensus and the need to experience an absolute reality are premises which Buddhist theology developed and which this thesis explores. In chapter one this thesis considers the basis of Buddhist theology and how it explains the experience of the sacred, the role of religion and the potential for the construction of a relative reality. This thesis argues that religion is at the core of human existence as a vessel of faith which follows a particular theological path toward a communion with the divine. The Buddhist path, aware of the interaction of different levels of reality—relative and absolute—also conceives inner development and social change as key elements of an interdependent transformation. The idea of ‘world peace through inner peace’ is one advocated by ‘engaged Buddhists’ and found in the ethical code of Buddha’s message. Chapter two examines how international relations became the arena where individuals, institutions and states converge and reflect the basic premises of their world-views, whether rooted in anger, hatred and ignorance of the interdependent nature of all phenomena, or based in compassion and awareness of a shared common good. In addition, it addresses the issue of the resurgence of religion in international relations and how it is present or absent from political science theories and policy making. Through this analysis, several established elements such as the concept of the state, secularism and religion as a source of war, are challenged in a new era of multi-agency and mutual influence through religious ideas, groups and communities. Following this inter-subjective construction of the world, the thesis presents two case studies which argue that religious leaders exercise political influence through their actions, ideas and beliefs. The first is the life and works of Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in chapter three and the second is the life of Archbishop Desmond Tutu in chapter four. The former having suffered the violent occupation of Tibet and the continuous attacks on Tibetan culture that led him into exile, and the latter having faced the policies of hatred under apartheid, the Dalai Lama and Tutu managed to suggest a world where forgiveness is rooted in compassion and were human beings share the responsibility of creating a compassionate reality. The final chapter develops a new approach to the study of religion and politics providing new variables of study and new categories to understand how international relations are influenced by religious ideas and movements. This thesis argues that there is a need to study and understand this interdependent relation between religious and secular actors through theoretical approaches in international relations and opens the discipline to new paradigms such as the Buddhist theological approach. The outcome of this partnership depends on the individual’s decision to engage, whether in negative causation that leads to violence, fear, terror and the perpetuation of suffering or in a positive one which opens the possibility of peace and liberation from suffering through compassion, forgiveness and reconciliation, recognizing our common humanity and shared universal responsibility.

L’étude des Jâtaka canoniques destinés au monarque et celle des Jâtaka apocryphes de Thaïlande montrent que le personnage-monarque qui commet des actions néfastes peut améliorer sa conduite grâce aux messages essentiels transmis par le maître. Le monarque-Bodhisatta pratique à la fois les dix-vertus du monarque - Dasa-râjâ-dhamma et les dix vertus transcendantes du futur Buddha - Pârami. Ces études dévoilent que le monarque bouddhiste doit suivre les deux principaux cadres de conduite : les dix-vertus du monarque et les devoirs du roi universel – Cakkavatti-vatta qui s’interpénètrent. Influencé par les enseignements bouddhiques, le roi Rama IX de Thaïlande prouve en les adoptant que ces codes de conduite sont applicables en les adaptant à sa charge afin d’améliorer la qualité de vie de son peuple. Ces enseignements conviennent à tous, du chef d’Etat à celui qui se gouverne lui-même. / The study of the canonical Jâtaka intended for the monarchy together with the apocryphal Jâtaka in Thailand demonstrates that the monarch who commits harmful actions can rectify his conduct thanks to the essential messages passed on by a Buddhist Master. The Bodhisatta-monarch employs the ten virtues of the monarch - Dasa-râjâ-dhamma - and the ten transcendental virtues of the future Buddha -Pârami. These studies reveal that the Buddhist monarch should follow the two main courses of conduct : the ten virtues of the monarch and the duties of a universal monarch - Cakkavatti-vatta – which interpenetrate. Influenced by the Buddhist teachings, King Rama IX of Thailand adopted these precepts in the execution of his kingly responsibilities and, by improving the quality of life of his subjects, proved their pertinence. The teachings are applicable to all, from Heads of State to the self-governing individual.

本論文研究材料為佛教經典中與文殊菩薩相關論述的典籍，研究之主題為不二中道之義理思想，並就生命境界的提升與轉化為焦點，呈顯不二中道思想對生命問題的實踐。 佛教經典中與文殊菩薩有關的經典數量非常多，為了對文殊法門能整體地掌握，因此首先將大乘佛典中文殊菩薩的相關典籍及其同本異譯作全盤地整理，並且從中探究文殊菩薩在佛教經典中所扮演的角色。 文殊菩薩在大乘經典中出現得很早，他所顯現的身分也很特殊，一方面他是十地菩薩，另一方面他因為智慧第一而堪為諸佛之引導者，是過去、現在、未來諸佛之「佛母」，然而文殊菩薩又以「童真菩薩」的樣貌實踐菩薩道。另外，他也是菩提道上淳熟的修行者，能入聖道，能入出菩薩「正性離生」，並且已經決定不退墮。在禪定方面，他已久修三昧，是甚深三昧的實證者。再者，文殊菩薩身具超越二元對立的圓滿智慧，能「達無礙智慧彼岸」，具有「超越智慧的完成」，也是智與行融合的實踐者。 「文殊法門」的內容是以空義為基礎，以不二中道思想為主軸，意指為不落入於任何的極端，捨離二邊，又不執著於二邊，是一種不偏於任何一方的觀點或方法。「不二」是依於法性平等的原則而突破認知所形成的框架，進而讓每個生命體放捨因對立所造成分離、孤立、二元的主觀評價，以中道的角度面對各種問題，避免讓個體生命落入一般認知的苦樂、迷悟、生死、聖凡等二元對立中，超越「分別」所造成的侷限，並且朝向更廣闊的生命視野。 本文並藉由經典中的例示闡述不二法門的實踐面向，說明超越二元對立的中道思想可以在面對人、事、物時，提供另一種適切的行為態度，避免陷入極端的對立狀態。不二法門對於生命困頓的問題正好能提供更開闊的思維角度，因此阿闍世王有機會可以跳脫罪惡感的枷鎖；娼妓金色女能轉化生命中受到貪欲煩惱所困擾的瓶頸；惡魔波旬也有可能得以超越心靈「束縛」與「解脫」的兩邊。 文殊類經典中所提出的例示，正顯示著不二法門對各種不同社會階層的生命關懷，是具有普遍性及平等性。這種關懷表面上看來是針對經典中的人物，然而事實上這正是經典向讀經者傳達著對生命體的關懷，期望所有的生命個體面對生命困頓的境界時，能在有限與無限的掙扎中超脫，使生命的寬廣度更向上開拓。 / This thesis utilizes and explores the Mañjuśrī scriptures, which discuss the doctrine of “non-duality”, and which are associated with the concept of the “Middle Way”. It is the purpose of this thesis to explore “the dharma-door of non-duality” (advaya-dharma- paryāya / mukha). The method adopted by Mañjuśrī, especially so, the focus on the study of sentient beings practicing “non-duality” to overcome the difficulties in life, is central to this study. To fully comprehend the Mahāyāna scriptures which expound on the subject of Mañjuśrī, this thesis studies and compares many textual sources, including the sutra itself, which has been translated by different translators spanning many different periods of history. In the Mahāyāna scriptures, Mañjuśrī appears very early, and plays an important role in inspiring aspirant Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in cultivating the “Bodhi-Mind”. On one hand, Mañjuśrī plays the role of a Bodhisattva, and on the other hand, he is the supervisor of all Buddhas in the past, the present, and the future. As the embodiment of the perfection of wisdom, Mañjuśrī, out of great compassion, devotes himself to support and assist all sentient beings in overcoming obstacles, and does this systematically by preaching the doctrine of non-duality. The dharma-door of Mañjuśrī, non-duality, is a method of attaining the Middle Way, based on emptiness (wunyata). The Mañjuśrī scriptures elucidate the concept of the “Middle Way” by means of transforming erroneous dichotomous cognition into the cognitive state of non-duality. To illustrate the theme of practicing non-duality, I will give three concrete illustrations of how king Ajatawatru applied non-duality to solving the paradoxes of guilt and guiltlessness. For example, how did a prostitute make use of non-duality to transcend the conflicting natures of greed and purity, and how did the demon utilize the actuality of the “Middle Way” to overcome the contradiction between mental restraint and unrestrained conceptualization? In brief, this study examines the main idea of the Mañjuśrī scriptures depicting non-duality, which can help sentient beings free themselves from dilemma. In other words, the Mañjuśrī scriptures take non-duality as a guideline to concern all kind of living beings in different social conditions.

This study uses the Tibetan mandala, a Buddhist meditation aid and sacred artform, as a secular critical model by which to analyse the complete fictions of author David Mitchell. Discussing his novels, short stories and libretti, this study maps the author's fictions as an interconnected world-system whose re-evaluation of secular belief in galvanising compassionate ethical action is revealed by a critical comparison with the mandala's methods of world-building. Using the mandala as an interpretive tool to critique the author's Buddhist influences, this thesis reads the mandala as a metaphysical map, a fitting medium for mapping the author's ethical worldview. The introduction evaluates critical structures already suggested to describe the author's worlds, and introduces the mandala as an alternative which more fully addresses Mitchell's fictional terrain. Chapter I investigates the mandala's cartographic properties, mapping Mitchell's short stories as integral islandic narratives within his fictional world which, combined, re-evaluate the role of secular belief in galvanising positive ethical action. Chapter II discusses the Tibetan sand mandala in diaspora as a form of performance when created for unfamiliar audiences, reading its cross-cultural deployment in parallel with the regenerative approaches to tragedy in the author's libretti Wake and Sunken Garden. Chapter III identifies Mitchell's use of reincarnation as a form of non-linear temporality that advocates future-facing ethical action in the face of humanitarian crises, reading the reincarnated Marinus as a form of secular bodhisattva. Chapter IV deconstructs the mandala to address its theoretical limitations, identifying the panopticon as its sinister counterpart, and analysing its effects in number9dream. Chapter V shifts this study's use of the mandala from interpretive tool to emerging category, identifying the transferrable traits that form the emerging category of mandalic literature within other post-secular contemporary fictions, discussing works by Michael Ondaatje, Ali Smith, Yann Martel, Will Self, and Margaret Atwood.