The healthcare sector is mainly characterised by changing technologies, increasing market demands, social pressures, and political pressures. A significant amount of money has been invested by the Department of Health through the National Health Services (NHS), Private Finance Initiative (PFI), and Local Improvement Finance Trust (LIFT) to provide healthcare services. This has resulted in development of several new healthcare facilities. Since formation of the NHS in the mid 19th century, significant developments in medical technologies, and increasing health and safety and privacy related concerns almost every decade new approaches towards designing were observed. Thus, modern technologies (interoperable tools) and concepts such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), building simulation, healthy/sustainable facilities, healing environments and so forth have been incorporated and proved to be major catalysts for a change in overall design practices for healthcare. Despite significant investment and advancement in technologies, many existing healthcare facilities, even today remain significantly unimproved or inadequate when energy and overall performance is considered. It is, therefore, important to evaluate existing facilities and, consequently, refurbishment processes and tools for the same. This was the focus of this research. Recently, energy efficiency and carbon emissions are considered major issues by industry and government because of increasing importance of environment and issues related to global warming, climate change. In 2008, existing healthcare facilities were responsible for over £410 million worth of energy consumption and 3.7 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Considering the above mentioned issues, the government has imposed following two key targets especially for existing healthcare facilities; to achieve 55-65 GJ/100m3 energy consumption and to reduce the level of primary energy consumption by 15 per cent (0.15 million tonnes carbon from 2000 level) by 2015. Also, the literatures suggest these facilities are energy inefficient because their performance is unsatisfactory and they fail to provide comfortable environment for patients despite significant energy consumption. Thus, these facilities should be considered for refurbishment. Recent developments in the construction sector such as BIM based tools or tools that are interoperable can help the project team involved during a refurbishment of a healthcare facility to take decisions and maintain acceptable environmental quality during and post refurbishment. However, there are many ideas and methodologies proposed for development of new healthcare facilities, but the challenges in using these methodologies, such as BIM, energy simulation for refurbishment of existing healthcare facilities and above mentioned targets provided a base and context for this research. The research used both primary and secondary data collection techniques, such as literature review, case studies and a questionnaire survey. The later phases of the research highlighted a clear need for immediate actions on existing healthcare facilities, if government targets related to energy consumption and overall performance are to be achieved. Thus, redevelopment of existing healthcare facilities to support the 21st century (modern) technologies to reduce environmental impacts and improved users' satisfaction was considered as priority areas. One of the key challenges for existing healthcare facilities is the presence of occupants during refurbishment in adjacent spaces, which may not be a problem for other types of existing buildings; there is also a lack of information on existing healthcare buildings. The research findings revealed that refurbishment lacks broad perspective, for example, issues related to mechanical systems, aesthetic considerations and redesigning facilities have never been given a sufficient importance. A Healthcare Energy and Refurbishment (HEaR) framework and decision making process was developed as part of this research to enable healthcare organisations to adopt modern methods for re-designing of existing facilities, and to exploit refurbishment practices with consideration to energy consumption. The framework was validated by demonstrating it to professionals; experts from the industry. Keywords: Building Information Modelling, energy, existing healthcare facility, framework, refurbishment.

Offsite construction solutions have gained significant prominence over recent years. Much of the interest however, has been focussed on the building sector, in particular housing. The Civil Engineering and Infrastructure sector (CE&I) has comparatively seen little growth in this aspect. Specific exemplars for some high-profile projects, such as the Heathrow Airport control tower, do exist, but there have been far less applications of the new and emerging technologies and approaches that have been influential in the building sector recently. In addition, Offsite itself is not a well-defined supply sector, but rather a conglomeration of various, largely material or technology-based supply networks. This makes it difficult to realise new opportunities, especially in different sectors of the construction industry. This thesis is the culmination of a four-year Engineering Doctorate (EngD) research programme investigating the components that affect the realisation of offsite in the CE&I sector. It commences with an introduction to the research and its aims and objectives, and moves on to present the methodological considerations. During the four Work Packages (WP) conducted, a total of 78 individuals participated and contributed to workshop and interviews, together with an extensive critical review of literature. All primary and secondary data was examined with appropriate methods, such as a comparative case study and an emergent thematic analysis, upon which a series of conclusions and subsequently recommendations were drawn. The findings clearly identify that CE&I is more risk averse, and defines offsite differently, to the building sector. Each CE&I sub-sector has specific drivers and barriers to offsite, and due to the relative longevity of CE&I projects (both procurement, design, and construction) makes it difficult to benchmark and quantify offsite and its benefits. Large programmes of works rather than small projects are key to realising offsite as they provide confidence to the supply chain of long term investment. In addition, clients are pivotal for driving offsite as they can influence the industry s focus; nevertheless, investment cycles in infrastructure clients hinders offsite realisation. For holistic offsite implementation organisation need to have a top-down strategy. Therefore offsite requirements should be embedded within the project delivery governance processes. Its realisation is linked directly to recruitment, training and research and development plans. Building information modelling (BIM) now plays a key part in offsite realisation in CE&I as from 2016 it will be compulsory for all centrally-funded government works. BIM however, does not directly increase the offsite implementation, but it can help enable offsite due to the ability to define the design earlier in the project lifecycle. In addition, BIM encourages the use of software that can help identify the repetition of components, therefore increasing the potential for economies to scale. Finally, with the use of such software, delivery teams can simulate the construction sequence and therefore further help to enable offsite by reducing logistical challenges.

Estimating the construction time and cost of a building project is an essential task of construction manager, which benefits owners, engineers and contractors. Construction duration and cost, in particular, have profound influence on the outcome of a project at the conceptual stage of its life. The conventional methods used to estimate the time and costs of construction projects are based on 2D models, which need much time and effort from engineers, estimators and schedulers who are involved in preparing them because all of this process is done manually, especially when the project has several design alternatives. Considering that, Building Information Modelling (BIM), which is a technology that enhances data transfer and ensures cooperation among designers, engineers, and contractors, can provide an efficient way for cost estimating and schedule planning. On the other hand, sustainability has drawn more and more attention by the construction industry, this is because a project’s construction process has crucial impacts on society, the environment, and the economy. Modular Construction has been proven to ensure sustainable construction by reducing the negative impacts on the environment, reducing construction time, and improving manpower productivity. This research aims at developing an integrated model that interrelates BIM with construction cost estimation, scheduling, and sustainability at the conceptual design stage of projects. The aim is to reduce the preparation time and increase the efficiency of making major decisions for both conventional construction and modular construction. The proposed model consists of five modules, including a data collection module, a cost estimation module, a scheduling module, a sustainability evaluation module, and a 5D integrated module. Plug-ins were developed in the model to link BIM tool (i.e., Autodesk Revit) with Microsoft Excel to ensure automatic data transfer among these modules all within a BIM platform so that owners and designers can quickly generate a reliable construction cost estimate, construction schedule, preliminary sustainability evaluation, as well as construction process simulation.

Currently, many researchers are looking at efficient ways to reduce energy and carbon emissions of construction materials used in buildings over their life due to its significant environmental impact. Along with operational energy, embodied energies and its associated carbon are substantial contributors in the overall sustainability assessment. The calculation of materials’ embodied energy and carbon emissions during the construction stage is a major assessment factor that needs to be considered to measure the environmental impact of materials used in the construction of buildings, which would provide designers with the ability to lower the environmental impact of buildings at the early design stage. Overall, it is rather complicated to compute embodied energy and carbon emissions due to the various factors involved. The tools and methodologies, listed in the literature, are rather imperfect as they tend to overgeneralize. The equipment used, fuel needed, and electricity required for each type of construction material varies from one location to another and thus embodied energy used, and carbon produced will differ for each construction project. Moreover, the method used in manufacturing, transporting and putting in place these materials will have significant influence on their environmental impact. This anomaly has made it difficult to calculate or even benchmark the usage of such factors. This thesis proposes an integrated model aimed at calculating embodied energies, embodied carbon and associated costs generated by construction materials based on such variability. This thesis presents a systematic approach that uses an efficient method of calculation to provide new insight for the selection of construction materials and equipment required to place them for buildings. Such assessment will aid in reducing the environmental impact of construction. The proposed model will be developed in a BIM environment. The quantification of materials’ energy is determined over the three main stages of their lifecycle: manufacturing, transporting, and placing. The proposed model will use multiple databases to calculate the energy used by manufacturing, transporting, and placing construction materials. By identifying the machinery required, an accurate calculation is achieved through geospatial data analysis. The proposed model can automatically calculate the distances between the material suppliers and construction sites to increase the accuracy of its outcome. Based on such variables, the proposed model provides designers with a list of equipment as to minimize the embodied energy and carbon produced by materials used in constructing buildings. Additionally, the proposed model has the ability to calculate the environmental cost impact of using specific building materials. Overall, this thesis aims to help researchers and the construction industry in reducing the environmental impact of construction activities through the selection of materials and the determination of machines required to achieve that goal.

Detta examensarbete har undersökt vilka möjligheter som skapas genom att använda Building Information Modelling (BIM) för Livscykelkostnadsanalyser (LCCA). Arbetet beskriver först LCCA och sedan hur BIM samt öppna standardiserade dataformat kan användas för LCCA och för kvalitetssäkring av data. Till sist visas hur ett verktyg som räknar ut LCC direkt från en byggnadsmodell kan utformas. Genom att kunna synliggöra konsekvenserna av olika lösningsalternativ och göra kvalitativa LCCA erhålls genomtänkta lösningar och medvetenhet om de framtida förvaltningskostnaderna. För en byggherre som också ansvarar för driften kan dessa alternativsvärderingar och analyser leda till betydligt lägre förvaltningskostnader. För Norska Statsbygg som idag förvaltar 2.6 miljoner kvadratmeter fördelat på 2300 byggnader innebär lägre förvaltningskostnader inte bara besparingar för dem utan även för hela det Norska samhället. Därför är LCCA ett viktigt beslutsunderlag för Statsbygg. För LCCA behövs verktyg som ger adekvata resultat och för detta ändamål är de senaste årens utveckling inom BIM intressant. Syftet med detta arbete var att först beskriva och analysera möjligheten att använda BIM för LCCA och sedan att visa hur ett LCC-verktyg kan utformas. Arbetet grundade sig enbart i kvalitativa arbetsmetoder genom intervjuer och direktmedverkan. I undersökningen har jag valt att intervjua anställda på Statsbygg för att få veta mer om LCC. De har varit drivande i utveckling av metoder och den norska standarden NS3454 sedan 1982, de är också en av Norges största byggherrar som även förvaltar sina byggnader och LCCA får därför stor betydelse. Jag har också valt att fokusera på renhållning som är en av posterna i den norska standarden NS3454 för LCCA. Renhållning valdes eftersom det är den största kostnaden under förvaltningsfasen. Kunskaper om BIM erhölls genom direktmedverkan hos Jotne EPM-Technology i Oslo som har arbetat med öppna standardiserade dataformat och BIM sedan 1985. Som en del av deras utvecklingsmiljö arbetades det fram ett verktyg för beräkning av framtida renhållningskostnader. Slutsatsen i arbetet är att genom användning av BIM för LCCA kan det erhållas bättre kvalitet i den slutliga produkten genom fler möjligheter för optioneering och kvalitetskontroller. Dessutom kan det ge mer adekvata LCCA genom Master Data Management och möjligheten att planera mer i detalj. För att dessa fördelar ska kunna bli verklighet behöver det utvecklas fler verktyg för både förvaltning och LCCA. Det behöver också utvecklas fler kunskapsdatabaser för LCC, underhåll, energi samt rengöring. All utveckling bör dessutom basera sig på öppna standardiserade dataformat. / This thesis has investigated the possibilities of using Building Information Modelling (BIM) for Life Cycle Cost Analys (LCCA). It describes LCC and how BIM can be used for LCC and for data quality control. It also shows how a tool that calculates the LCC directly from a building model can be designed. Being able to highlight the consequences of various design solutions and make qualitative LCCA, results in better solutions and awareness off the future facility management(FM) -costs. For a builder who also is responsible for the operational phase these analysis can lead to significantly lover costs. Statsbygg currently manages 2.6 million square meter spread over 2300 buildings. Lower FM-costs implies savings not only for the company itself, but for the Norwegian society as well. Therefore LCCA is an important decision basis for Statsbygg. LCCA requires tools that provide adequate results, and for this purpose the recent developments in BIM are interesting. BIM enables operational procedures and analysis that previously not was possible and it has potential to be used within the LCCA. The purpose of this work was first to describle and analyze the possibility of using BIM to make LCCA and then to show how a solution for calculating can be designed. The work was based only in qualitative methods through interviews and being a part of developers enviroment. It was chosen to interview employees at Statsbygg to know more about LCC. They have worked with development and methods since 1982 and have extensive expertise in the field. They are one of Norway’s largest property developers, wich also manages its buildings and therefore LCCA is important. It was also chosen to focus on cleaningcosts wich is one of the costs in the Norwegian standard NS 3454 for LCCA. Cleaning was chosen because it is a major cost in the FM-phase. Knowledge of BIM was obtained beeing part of the development enviroment at Jotne EPM-Technology in Oslo who has worked with open standard data formats and BIM since 1985. As part of their enviroment the works with the cleaningcost-tool proceed. The conclusion of this work is that use of BIM for LCCA can obtain better quality of the final product by more opportunities for optioneering and quality controls. Moreover, it may provide more accurate LCCA through master data management systems and the ability to plan in more detail. To realize all benefits it is necessary to develop more tools for FM and LCCA based on open standard data formats. Furthermore, it is necessary to develop knowledge databases for LCC, maintenance, energy and cleaning based on open standard data formats.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are at the core of construction projects. LCA is one of the key elements of sustainability in the construction projects and an improved LCA process can be achieved through the adoption of BIM. Exploring the characteristics of a BIM-based LCA process from the different perspectives of interoperability and identifying the effects of adopting regionally different EPD databases are significant.  The LCA add-in tools, One Click LCA and Tally, have been selected to identify the differences in the LCA results caused by adopting regionally different Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) databases. To observe the differences in the LCA results, the LCA processes were run through the LCA add-in tools. The input data, the system boundaries and the LCA scope were kept the same for the LCA processes. The LCA results were produced through the integrated LCA add-in tools. The GWP values in manufacturing module, produced by One Click LCA, were embedded into the Solibri model of Akademiska Sjukhuset project. Value level of interoperability in the BIM-based LCA processes was detected and analyzed according to the interaction types that were obtained between the LCA add-in tools and the BIM software. Obstacles in increasing the value level of interoperability to a higher level in today’s BIM-based LCA processes were also focused. Furthermore, the benefits and drawbacks of the BIM-based LCA processes were identified. At last, the differences between BIM-based LCA and traditional LCA process were identified along with future possibilities. It was observed that adopting regionally different EPD databases has significant effects on the LCA results. The semantic detail level of the BIM model and the data extraction quality came to the forefront in identifying the benefits and drawbacks. The interaction types in the studied BIM-based LCA processes were identified as “Collaboration” interaction type. Accordingly, the value level of interoperability in both BIM-based LCA processes was obtained as the high level of value innovation along with efficiency and differentiation. Moreover, the convenience of use, time and resource efficiency and improved accuracy obtained through the BIM-based LCA processes were concluded as some of the major differences from the traditional LCA processes. / BIM (Building Information Modelling) och LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) ligger i kärnan av byggprojekt. LCA är ett nyckelverktyg för hållbarhetsarbete i byggbranschen och en förbättrad LCA-process kan uppnås i och med att tillämpa BIM-verktyg. BIM bjuder på många nyttor däremot detta arbete fokuserar på nyttan som BIM kan ge till LCA-processen. Därmed är forskning på grunden till Bim-baserad LCA-process och datas integrations- och konverteringsförmågan ytterst viktiga för detta arbete. LCA-verktyg One Click LCA och Tally och dess tillägg till CAD-mjukvaror har utvalts för att jämföra resultat vars indata är baserat på olika EPD-databaser (Environmental Product Declaration). För att iaktta skillnader i LCA-resultat, har LCA-processen gjorts med dessa LCA-verkytg. Indata, systemgränser och LCA-definitionsområde var samma för båda LCA-processer. LCA-resultat producerat av båda LCA-verktyg har jämförts utifrån klimatavtrycksperspektiv (Global Warming Potential) för materialframtagandesskede. One Click LCAs GWP-värden har importerats i en Solibri-modell för projektet. Slutligen har LCA-resultat av en Bim-baserad process jämförts med resultat av en klassisk LCA process. Påverkan av geografiskt anpassade EPD-databaser är avgörande för LCA-resultat. Materialframtagandesskede har störst miljöpåverkan i förhållande till andra livsskede. Semantisk detaljnivå av Solibri-modellen är avgörande för identifiering av för- och nackdelar av datas integrations- och konverteringsförmågan. Datainteraktionstyper studerade i BIM-baserade LCA-processer klassas som kollaborativ interaktionstyp. Integrations- och konverteringsförmåga av både BIM-baserade LCA-processer utvärderades på en hög nivå gällande förbättrade resultat, effektivitet och resultatkännslighet. Utöver dessa har BIM-baserade LCA-processer en förbättrad användbarhet och är mer tid- och resurseffektiva, vilka är huvudskillnader från en LCA-process utfört på klassiskt sätt.

Digitaliseringen av samhället sker allt snabbare, men till skillnad från de flesta andra branscher så sker digitaliseringen av byggbranschen långsamt. Fastighetsförvaltningen är den del av branschen som ligger mest efter när det kommer till digitalisering. På grund av det har ett informationsgap uppstått mellan projekteringen och förvaltningen. En lösning för att binda samman projekteringens informationsrikedom med förvaltningen kan vara digitala tvillingar. Syftet med denna studie var att bidra till en ökad förståelse kring vad en digital tvilling är och att ge en bättre bild av hur en digital tvilling kan skapas samt hur den kan användas i förvaltningsskedet. Målet var att ta fram en BIM-modell som ska kunna ligga till grund för en digital tvilling som kan användas inom förvaltningen. Den metod som valdes för att undersöka problemet är modellering, där första steget var att ta fram statisk information kring den aktuella fastigheten. Sedan modellerades byggnaden och slutligen tillfördes dynamisk information via en molnbaserad plattform. För modelleringen av byggnaden användes programvaran Autodesk Revit 2023. För att sammanlänka 3D-modellen med den dynamiska informationen användes plattformen Twinfinity. I denna studie har en BIM-modell skapats som utgör en virtuell representation av en verklig fastighet. Relevant statisk och dynamisk information kring fastigheten samlades in och kopplades till den virtuella modellen. Den virtuella modellen som togs fram i denna studie kan per definition inte kallas för en digital tvilling, men kan med vidare arbete utvecklas till en digital tvilling. Den framtagna modellen bör ses som ett bra exempel på hur fastighetsdata kan kopplas till en BIM-modell och på hur informationen kan visualiseras på ett enkelt och lättförståeligt sätt.  Resultatet visar att implementering av digitala modeller i fastighetsförvaltningen kan generera fördelar. En digital modell ger fastighetsförvaltaren god kontroll och förståelse kring fastigheten, dess utseende, vad den innehåller och framförallt storlek på ytor och rum. Modellen skapar också en plattform där all information kring fastigheten kan samlas på ett och samma ställe och där den är lättillgänglig för alla inom organisationen då den är molnbaserad.  I dagsläget råder dock en ovisshet kring vad en digital tvilling är på grund av att det saknas en branschgemensam definition av begreppet, vilket kan leda till missförstånd och missuppfattningar. Vidare nås slutsatsen att det är svårare att skapa en informationsrik digital tvilling för en redan befintlig byggnad jämfört med nyproduktion med avseende på statisk information. Vid nyproduktion är det möjligt att ta tillvara på all den information som genereras under projekteringen och överföra den direkt till den digitala tvillingen genom en obruten informationskedja, vilket gör att informationsgapet mellan projektering och förvaltning undviks. Vad gäller dynamisk information råder däremot ingen skillnad i informationsrikedom i den digitala tvillingen för redan befintliga byggnader jämfört med nyproduktion. / Swedish property management is slow to adapt to the increasing digitalization in society. A tool to help the industry become more digitized is digital twins. The aim of this study is to contribute to an increased understanding of what a digital twin is and to give a better picture of how a digital twin can be produced for property management. The goal is to develop a BIM-model that can form the basis of a digital twin that can be used in property management. The method used to investigate the problem is by modelling an existing building that will be provided with static and dynamic information. The result shows that it is possible to produce a BIM-model relatively easily which can form the basis of a digital twin. The conclusion is that digital models create several advantages for the management, it creates good control and understanding of the property and gathers all information in one place. Currently, there is uncertainty about what a digital twin is due to the lack of an industry-wide definition of the term, which leads to misunderstandings and misconceptions. Lastly, creating a digital twin for an existing property can be problematic as the static information that the digital twin can contain is limited by the amount of information the property manager possesses, as well as the information that can be obtained through a physical examination of the building.

Blockchain technology with its distributed ledgers attracts massive attention today and creates interest in many different industries. One of the most promising areas for implementation of blockchain technology is its use to create fully automated and decentralized contract solutions, so-called smart contracts. The blockchain technology is also expected to develop the concept of BIM by facilitating the creation of a common model. The problem addressed in this study is the limited amount of research carried out in the blockchain field and the potential use of smart contracts in procurement of services in the construction industry.  The construction industry differs from many other industries as it is project-based with changing circumstances and conditions. The study shows that the construction industry is an industry focused on discussions and disputes, the majority of which are linked to payments and contractual interpretations. Two of the key concepts of the study are therefore moral hazard and opportunistic behavior. Opportunistic behavior can affect norms, the willingness for cooperation and the degree to which parties trust each other. Designing contracts to reduce the risk of moral hazard and opportunistic behavior is therefore an important aspect. The study has chosen to study both relationships that are hierarchical to nature but also peer-to-peer.  The purpose of the study has been to conceptually reflect on percived opportunities and challenges with blockchains in the construction industry regarding two identified applications, smart contracts and BIM. To investigate this, a qualitative interview study has been conducted. The study points to the need for a more standardized building process that is subject to a certain degree of repetition to achieve successful use of a blockchain network and smart contracts. The study also shows that there is a positive attitude from the respondents regarding a possible development for several of the potential applications of blockchain technology. Blockchain technology and smart contracts have the potential to improve the reliability and credibility of logbooks, self-checks and work performed within a building project. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of long-term relationships and confidence in reducing opportunistic behavior. Based on previous research and empirical analysis, the study contributes to an increased understanding of which levels in the construction industry smart contracts may be applicable. The study shows that smart contracts are not perceived suitable for complex contracts where the work to be performed can be changed many times during the contract period. The study, on the other hand, indicates that blockchain development with BIM is not demanded at the present time. Finally, the study points out that blockchain technology is perceived to have the potential to make the building process more transparent and open with reduced power conditions at the same time as it gets less centralized which opens up the need for research in that direction. / Blockkedjetekniken med sina distribuerade liggare lockar idag massiv uppmärksamhet och skapar intresse inom många olika branscher. Ett av de mest lovande områdena för implementering av blockkedjetekniken är dess användning för att skapa helt automatiserade och decentraliserade kontraktslösningar, så kallade smarta kontrakt. Blockkedjetekniken spås även kunna utveckla begreppet BIM genom att underlätta skapandet av en gemensam modell. Problemet som adresseras i denna studie är den begränsade mängd forskning som har utförts gällande blockkedjor och smarta kontrakts potentiella användning vid upphandling av tjänster i byggbranschen.  Byggbranschen skiljer sig från många andra branscher då den är projektbaserad med föränderliga förhållanden och förutsättningar. Studien visar på att byggbranschen är en bransch kantad av diskussioner och tvister, vars majoritet är kopplad till betalningar och kontraktstolkningar. Två för studien centrala begrepp är därmed moral hazard och opportunistiskt beteende. Opportunistiskt beteende kan påverka normer, viljan till samarbete och i hur hög grad parter litar på varandra. Att utforma kontrakt så att risken för moral hazard och opportunistiskt beteende minskar är därmed en viktig aspekt. Studien har valt att studera både relationer som är hierarkiska till naturen men också peer-to-peer.  Syftet med studien har varit att konceptuellt reflektera över uppfattade nya möjligheter och utmaningar som finns med blockkedjor i byggbranschen gällande två identifierade användningsområden, smarta kontrakt och BIM. För att undersöka detta har en kvalitativ intervjustudie genomförts. Studien pekar på att det krävs en mer standardiserad byggnadsprocess som omfattas av en viss grad av upprepning för att få en lyckad använding av ett blockkedje-nätverk och smarta kontrakt. Studien visar också på att det finns en positiv grundinställning från respondenternas sida kring en möjlig utveckling för flera av blockkedjeteknikens potentiella applikationer. Blockkedjetekniken och smarta kontrakt har potentialen att förbättra tillförlitligheten och trovärdigheten hos loggböcker, egenkontroller och utförda arbeten inom ett byggnadsprojekt. Vidare belyser studien vikten av långsiktiga relationer och tillit för att minska opportunistiskt beetende. Baserat på tidigare forskning, empiri och analys bidrar studien till en ökad förståelse kring vilka nivåer inom byggbranschen smarta kontrakt kan vara applicerbara. Studien förevisar att smarta kontrakt inte uppfattas lämpa sig för komplicerade kontrakt där arbetet som ska utföras kan ändras många gånger under kontraktsperioden. Studien indikerar däremot att blockkedje utvecklingen med BIM inte efterfrågas i dagsläget. Slutligen pekar studien på att blockkedjetekniken uppfattas ha potential att göra byggprocessen mer transparent och öppen med minskade maktförhållanden samt mindre centraliserade vilket öppnar upp behov av forskning i den riktningen.

The creation of an effective construction schedule is fundamental to the successful completion of a construction project. Effectively communicating the temporal and spatial details of this schedule are vital, however current planning approaches often lead to multiple or misinterpretations of the schedule throughout the planning team. Four Dimensional Computer Aided Design (4D CAD) has emerged over the last twenty years as an effective tool during construction project planning. In recent years Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a valuable approach to construction informatics throughout the whole lifecycle of a building. Additionally, emerging trends in location-aware and wearable computing provide a future potential for untethered, contextual visualisation and data delivery away from the office. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel computer-based approach, to facilitate on-site 4D construction planning through interaction with a 3D construction model and corresponding building information data in outdoor Augmented Reality (AR). Based on a wide ranging literature review, a conceptual framework was put forward to represent software development requirements to support the sequencing of construction tasks in AR. Based on this framework, an approach was developed that represented the main processes required to plan a construction sequence using an onsite model based 4D methodology. Using this proposed approach, a prototype software tool was developed, 4DAR. The implemented tool facilitated the mapping of elements within an interactive 3D model with corresponding BIM data objects to provide an interface for two way communication with the underlying Industry Foundation Class (IFC) data model. Positioning data from RTK-GPS and an electronic compass enabled the geo-located 3D model to be registered in world coordinates and visualised using a head mounted display fitted with a ii forward facing video camera. The scheduling of construction tasks was achieved using a novel interactive technique that negated the need for a previous construction schedule to be input into the system. The resulting 4D simulation can be viewed at any time during the scheduling process, facilitating an iterative approach to project planning to be adopted. Furthermore, employing the IFC file as a central read/write repository for schedule data reduces the amount of disparate documentation and centralises the storage of schedule information, while improving communication and facilitating collaborative working practices within a project planning team. Post graduate students and construction professionals evaluated the implemented prototype tool to test its usefulness for construction planning requirements. It emerged from the evaluation sessions that the implemented tool had achieved the essential requirements highlighted in the conceptual framework and proposed approach. Furthermore, the evaluators expressed that the implemented software and proposed novel approach to construction planning had potential to assist with the planning process for both experienced and inexperienced construction planners. The following contributions to knowledge have been made by this study in the areas of 4D CAD, construction applications of augmented reality and Building Information Modelling; · 4D Construction Planning in Outdoor Augmented Reality (AR) · The development of a novel 4D planning approach through decomposition · The deployment of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) in AR · Leveraging IFC files for centralised data management within real time planning and visualisation environment.

At present there are concerns that new housing in the UK under-performs in terms of energy-efficiency. In research studies where the thermal performance of the building fabric has been measured, post-construction, significant gaps between design predictions and the as-built performance of new housing have been found. This thesis is concerned with how thermography may be used to assess the thermal performance of new housing during the construction process. The practical utility of this testing approach, which has not been investigated in-depth by previous research, is to identify performance issues at a stage when undertaking remedial work is less costly and disruptive. Moreover, by identifying issues that could reduce the energy-efficiency of the building fabric, these tests could help address the observed "performance gap". An approach for using thermography at different stages of construction has been developed through practical case studies and experimental work. The complementary use of heat transfer modelling and thermography is also explored. Finally, through interviews with industry professionals, the context of implementing tests within UK housing development practices is examined. The results of applying the testing approach demonstrate that beneficial feedback can be obtained without significant interruption to construction activities. However, test procedures need to be modified according to the stage and method of construction. It is proposed that heat transfer modelling can inform the interpretation of test results and analysis of defect severity. For the testing approach to be implemented more widely, there would need to be further development and trials on different types of construction and the oversight of an independent body to establish its credibility. In conclusion, thermography has the potential alongside other testing and inspection practices to help improve standards of site construction. However, there are limitations to its use which need to be considered if such tests are to be implemented effectively.