Heat transfer in window frames with internal air cavities is studied in this thesis. Investigations focus on two- and three-dimensional natural convection effects inside air cavities, the dependence of the emissivity on the thermal transmittance, and the emissivity of anodized and untreated aluminum profiles. The investigations are mostly conducted on window frames which are the same size as real frames found in residential buildings. Numerical and experimental investigations were performed to study the effectiveness of one commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) program for simulating combined natural convection and heat transfer in simple three-dimensional window frames with internal air cavities. The accuracy of the conjugate CFD simulations was evaluated by comparing results for surface temperature on the warm side of the specimens to results from experiments that use infrared (IR) thermography to map surface temperatures during steady-state thermal tests. In general, there was good agreement between the simulations and experiments. Two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics and conduction simulations are performed to study the difference between treating air cavities as a fluid and as a solid when calculating the thermal transmittance of window frames. The simulations show that traditional software codes, simulating only conduction and using equivalent conductivities for the air cavities, give U- values that compare well with results from fluid flow simulations. The difference between the two models are mostly limited to the temperature distribution inside air cavities. It is also found that cavities with an interconnection less than about 7 mm can be treated as separate cavities. Three-dimensional natural convection effects in simple and custom-made PVC and thermally broken aluminum window frames with one open internal cavity were studied, with the use of CFD simulations and thermography experiments. Focus was put on corner effects and heat transfer rates. From the results it appears that the thermal transmittance of a four-sided section can be found by calculating the average of the thermal transmittance of the respective single horizontal and vertical sections. In addition, it was found that two-dimensinal conduction heat transfer simulation software agrees well with tree-dimensional CFD simulations if the natural convection correlations used for the internal cavities are correct. Numerical studies were done with natural convection in three-dimensional cavities with a high vertical aspect ratio and a low horizontal aspect ratio. The cavities studied had vertical aspect ratios of 20, 40, and 80 and horizontal aspect ratios ranging from 0,2 to 5. It was shown that three-dimensional cavities with a horizontal aspect ratio larger than five can be considered to be a two-dimensional cavity to within 4 % when considering heat transfer rates. Nusselt number correlations for the different horizontal aspect ratios are presented for cavities with vertical aspect ratios of 20 and 40. Complex multicellular flow was studied for the case where the vertical and horizontal aspect ratios were 40 and 2, respectively. Experimental studies included the normal spectral and total emissivity of specimens from six meter long untreated and anodized aluminum profiles. Specimens facing the internal cavities (thermal break cavity and all aluminum cavity) were measured. Some masking tapes often used in hot box experiments were also measured. The normal total emissivity was found to be is fairly constant (between 0.834 and 0.856) for exterior parts of the anodized profile and for surfaces facing the thermal break cavity. The normal total emissivity of the all-aluminum internal cavities was found to vary between 0.055 and 0.82. The experiments were performed with a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer in the wavelength interval from 4.5 to 40 μm.

This thesis is composed of three main parts: The first part that uses classic track models as a basis for further developments, the second part that deals with constitutive behaviour of granular materials and the third part that describes the development of a new triaxial cell apparatus and the testing of a ballast material using this apparatus. The description of classic track models is focused on the beam-on-elastic-foundation model (abbr. BOEF model), which make use of the Winkler foundation, and a simple beam element model with linear discrete support. The shortcomings of the BOEF model is discussed: It assumes a continuous foundation, a continuously welded track, the weight of the track ladder is not incorporated, linear support which imply prediction of tension in the uplift regions, no shear deformation in the rails is taken into account, it cannot predict stresses and strains within the granular layers. While some of the shortcomings may easily be incorporated others are not: Especially to remove tension in the uplift zones, and to calculate stresses and strains in the granular layers. The latter actually requires a continuum approach. A track model that approximately eliminates the tension in the uplift regions has been developed for a single axle load. As expected, the model shows that the length of the uplift zone and the amount of uplift have higher values than predicted by the BOEF model. The model may be useful when considering contact problems in the track, for instance in a buckling-of-rails analysis. For the BOEF model a tool that makes use of dimensionless sensitivity diagrams has been developed. The method will in an easy way provide the new maximum track reactions when one or more track parameters are changed. It is hoped that this tool will prove very helpful in a design process, at least as a first step. Dimensionless sensitivity diagrams have been worked out for rail deflection, rail moment, rail seat load, tensional rail base stress and vertical stress between sleeper and ballast. The parameters considered are the design wheel load, rail moment of inertia, position of neutral axis in the rail, sleeper spacing, sleeper width and the length of the sleeper that carries the vertical load. The dimensionless sensitivity diagrams for the BOEF model may be used both for a single axle load and for a double axle load. Also for a beam element model with linear discrete support the dimensionless sensitivity diagrams may be used, but only for a single axle load which is located directly above one of the supports, i.e. a sleeper. For the beam element model the diagrams for the rail deflection, rail seat load and vertical stress between sleeper and ballast are almost identical to the ones for the BOEF model, while the diagrams for the rail moment and tensile rail base stress are somewhat different. A beam element model with Euler-Bernoulli beam elements resting on nonlinear discrete supports was developed for a single axle load. The discrete supports, which were located at the sleeper positions, were modelled by a two-parameter power function. The model takes advantage of a measured load-deflection relationship, which is also modelled by a two-parameter power function. These latter parameters are generally found by regression of the measured data, while the two parameters for the discrete supports are found as part of the overall solution to the problem. The present version of the model only takes into account a short track section and further development of the model is therefore needed. The track ladder weight and a no tension option in the uplift region are not incorporated in the present version. The model is useful when the BOEF model cannot be used because of nonlinear track response. Regarding constitutive behaviour it is argued that the plastic strain per load cycle in a well functioning railway track must be very small and normally below 1/100 000 of the elastic strain per load cycle. If also the hysteresis of the material during a load cycle is small, then an elastic approximation could be justified when it comes to calculating the stresses. The plastic strains may then be detached from the stress-strain calculation and modelled separately on the basis of laboratory or field measurements. Several elastic constitutive models are described: The Hooke's law generalised to three dimensions, the cross anisotropic elastic model, two versions of the k-model, and two hyperelastic models. The general elasto-plastic framework with isotropic hardening is also described. The basics of repeated loading of a frictional system is described by analogy to a simple model with springs and frictional sliders. This model can be viewed as the basis for the pure kinematic multisurface model by Mróz and Iwan. Through energy considerations in cyclic loading of the frictional system the concept of reclaimed plastic strain is rejected. The concept of initial stresses and strains is discussed. It is argued that initial stresses cannot be large in the upper part of a road or railway embankment. The main reason for this is that granular materials cannot self equilibrate stresses through tension. The development and construction of triaxial equipment for testing railway ballast in its original grading is described. The specimens are 300 mm by 600 mm (diameter by height). A new and direct way of applying the confining load was developed, which allowed faster variation of the confining stress. A new instrumentation concept was invented where instrumentation rings are fastened to material particles instead of being attached to the outer membrane or to plugs embedded in the material. This arrangement measures the horizontal deformation. The vertical deformation has to be measured over the whole specimen length as resilient particle rotations prevented on-sample instrumentation. A test series on Vassfjell railway ballast was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of the new apparatus and to characterise the ballast material. The overall performance of the apparatus was found to be good with a reliable repeatability, but some modifications were suggested to improve the loading procedure in the beginning of the load steps. The test series on Vassfjell ballast was rather limited and no advanced modelling of the results was found to be appropriate. Instead an isotropic linear elastic approach was followed. Moisture was added, to the natural retention capacity, to some of the specimens. It was found that the added moisture only slightly affected the mechanical behaviour of the material. A somewhat denser grading was also tested, but the observed effect on the material properties was limited.

The thesis deals with experimental and numerical modelling to characterize early age tensile and compressive creep and its associated stress relaxation - which are very important properties in stress simulation of early age concrete. For this purpose a comprehensive work was carried out involving construction of a new tensile creep test equipment and development of test procedures to generate basic experimental data. The experimental program is subdivided into four series. Each of the series involves one varying parameter, which is relevant to the time-dependent behaviour of early age HPC. Most of the tests are repeated to check the reproducibility of the test results. The reproducibility of the test results for the BASE concretes confirmed that the experimental setup is reliable, and that it can be used to determine tensile creep of concrete at early ages. An extensive test program has been performed on HPC, with w/b = 0.40. The primary parameters studied were concrete ages at loading (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days), stress/strength levels (20-80%), and temperature levels (20, 34, 40, 57 and 60 oC) in addition to the effect of silica fume (0-15%) on tensile creep. The testing apparatus was new and significant efforts were devoted to develop reliable procedures in terms of accuracy and reproducibility. In parallel, compressive creep tests were conducted on a separate testing apparatus, and the results are compared to tensile creep behaviour. It was found that the instantaneous deformation under tension is smaller than under compression, and that the corresponding creep curves also are different. Creep in tension is found to be lower initially, but an almost linear rate is soon established which is much higher than in compression. The consequence is greater creep magnitude and thus greater creep coefficient in tension than in compression. The tests on non-linearity showed that the proportionality limit between stress and sealed tensile creep strain is about 60% of the strength. Creep tests under isothermal temperatures showed that, as for compressive creep, the sealed tensile creep accelerates for temperatures higher than 20 oC. In addition, the maturity principle describes this effect reasonably well, for the tested loading ages of about 3 days. The relatively large amount of experimental data, available in this study, has been used to investigate mathematical models. Comprehensive test results from the TSTM apparatus are analyzed with respect to creep and relaxation, where the effect of temperature on creep and relaxation is emphasized. Simulations of self-induced stresses are performed using the creep model denoted the Double Power Law (DPL). As solution method, the theory of linear viscoelasticity with aging is used. The model (M-DPL) is modified to take into account the effect of irrecoverable creep. For increasing temperatures during the hardening phase, the transient creep, which takes place during heating is taken into account by an additional creep term. Its contribution to stress relaxation was found to be up to 10%. This transient creep term is considered to be irrecoverable during the subsequent temperature decrease. The modified model captures the various characteristics of sealed creep and describes the tensile behaviour at early ages more accurately than the original Double Power Law. The effect of relaxation is found to be relatively large and significant in development of selfinduced stresses. Under isothermal temperature of 20 oC, the relaxation increases to about 40% of the fictive elastic stresses after 3 days and remains about constant after that. On the other hand, presentation of relaxation under realistic temperature histories is much more complicated, because the stresses change from compression to tension. This might also lead to increased tensile stresses because compressive creep reduces compressive stresses, but increases the subsequent tensile stresses. Underestimation of creep in this early period will lead to underestimation of the cracking risk. Creep development at very early ages has an important effect in determination of the creep model parameters. After an evaluation of the test results using six loading ages (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days) it was concluded that an optimal test program should include at least 3 loading ages, in which the loading ages 1 and 2 must be included. Furthermore, the test results indicate that partial replacement of cement with silica fume (5-15%) increases the sealed tensile creep. However, the reference concrete without silica fume dose not fit to this systematic pattern.

Denna rapport är resultatet av en studie kring kostnader för brandskydd av stålprofiler. Rapporten inleds med en beskrivning av problemet att hitta den ekonomiskt bästa lösningen för brandskydd av stålpelare i en konstruktion med specificerad brandklass. Därefter följer en allmän del om brandskydd och en övergripande redogörelse för gällande lagar och föreskrifter som har betydelse för brandskyddsdimensioneringen. De laster och förutsättningar som ligger till grund för valet av pelardimensioner beskrivs och valda dimensioner redovisas i tabell. Därefter följer en beskrivning av de brandskyddsmaterial som studerats: inklädnad med gips-, fibersilikat-, och stenullsskivor samt brandskyddsmålning. I resultatet ingår en sammanställning i tabellform. Till rapporten hör ett antal bilagor med materialspecifika tabeller samt resultat från gjorda datorberäkningar. / This report is the result of a study on costs for fire protection of steel sections. The report starts with a description of the problem to find the most economic way to protect a steel column in a construktion with a specified fire classification. After this follows a general part about fire protection and then a comprehensive account of valid laws and regulations of importence for the dimensioning of the fire protect. Loads and other conditions that underlies the choice of column dimensions is described and chosen dimensions are shown in a table. Then follows a description of the materials for fire protection which is concidered: cladding with plaster-, fibre silicate-, and stone wool XXX and XXXpaint. The result includes a compilation table. To the report comes a number of appendix with specific material tables and results from the computer calculations.

This Diploma work investigates internal air ventilated crawl-space in respect to construction and damp. The Diploma work assumes from a general description of crawl-space and general dump problems in ground construction. An internal air ventilated crawl-space is a construction where you take the ventilation air from the building and bring it down to the crawl-space and lets the air circulate before it passes through a retaining aggregate on the way out from the crawl-space. In this matter you get a worm space under the building and a lot less dump problems in form of · Ground damp · Build damp The ground dump reduces through draining around the building, different layer of gravel between the ground and the building and ventilation of the crawl- space. The build dump reduces through ventilation of the crawl-space as fast as possible. To make a internal air ventilated crawl-space work as it is thought it demands that the construction is completely airtight, or else you can get air leakage that makes warm air to leak out and could air can come in. From the literature study about internal air ventilated crawl-space and dump I have evaluated two different manufactures and have discovered that the differences according to construction problems and dump problems is marginal.

One of the aims of this report has been to make an inventory of the building trade market to see which document handling systems that are available. The secondary aim was to document the users´ demands on the systems and other demands such as quality assurance. After this, the document handling systems Byggnet and Lotus Notes, which are rather complex systems, have been analysed. Finally a recommendation has been made. In the inventory of the marketthe internet has been used because it is there the latest information can be found. This because document handling systems are rather new and there are therefore no other literature written yet. To get the users´ demands on the systems several interviews have been made. The result of the inventory is that there are six different document handling systems available today. And the recommendation is that Byggnet is an appropriate system to use.

Vi har i denna rapport jämfört produktionsmetoder vid byggande av gång- och cykeltunnel under järnväg. de metoder vi har jämfört är lansering och platsgjutning. Projektet som vi har studerat är byggandet av en gong- och cykeltunnel under järnväg vid Mjölby station. Vid detta projekt lanseras halva tunneln in och halva platsgjuts. Det vi har jämfört är dels de geotekniska aspekterna, där vi främst har tittat på vikten av förundersökningar, jordegenskapens inverkan, spontning och grundvattnets inverkan. Vi har också tittat på produktionstekniska aspekter, då främst storleken av arbetsområdet och arbetsmiljön. Vi har även betraktat ekonomi och produktionstid i de båda metoderna. Vi har i denna rapport främst använt oss av muntliga källor som gett sina synpunkter på hur tunneln ska eller bör utformas. Vi har sedan sammanställt alla synpunkter och åsikter och skaffat oss en egen uppfattning om de båda metoderna och när de bör användas. Det vi kommit fram till när vi har jämfört dessa båda metoder är att lansering har många fördelar vad gäller arbetsmiljö, tid och ekonomi. vid enklare tunnelprojekt är denna metod att föredra om förutsättningar finns. platsgjutning har dock de fördelar att den kan användas vid de flesta tunnelbyggnationer och att tågtrafiken kan flyta på utan längre störningar. Vid stora projekt som det i Mjölby anser vi att en kombination av metoderna är den allra bästa lösningen.

Funktionshindrade personer har möjlighet att få sin bostad anpassad så ett de kan leva ett självständigt liv i ett eget boende. Anpassningen betalas av kommunen genom ett bostadsanpassningsbidrag. De senaste åren har, inom Norrköpings kommun, kostnaderna för bostadsanpassningsbidrag ökat kraftigt och överstigit den budget som tilldelats. Syftet med den här rapporten är att undersöka hur andra kommuner arbetar med handläggning och upphandling av bostadsanpassningsärenden. En del frågor rör även åldersfördelningen. För att få en uppfattning om hur arbetet med bostadsanpassningsbidrag bedrivs ute i kommunerna har jag valt att göra en enkätundersökning. Kommunerna i undersökningen är valda efter invånarantal, jämförbara med Norrköping. Jämförelsen med andra kommuner visar att i stort sett alla jobbar på samma sätt när det gäller upphandlingar och ersättningsformer. Det går inte att säga att en ersättningsform är mer kostnadseffektiv än en annan när det gäller bostadsanpassningar. Kostnaden per ärende varierar stort hos de olika kommunerna. Jag kan konstatera att Norrköping ligger bland de som har den högsta kostnaden. Löpande räkning är den absolut vanligaste ersättningsformen. I ända upp till 90 % av alla ärenden i vissa kommuner används denna ersättningsform. Annars svarar de flesta att de också tillämpar löpande räkning med takpris och fast pris på anbud. Åldersfördelningen ser likadan ut i kommunerna i undersökningen. Genomsnittet av andelen personer över 75 år är 58 % och den överensstämmer med den siffra jag kom fram till i åldersfördelningen för bostadsanpassningsbidrag i Norrköpings kommun. Däremot ligger kostnaden för dessa ärenden något högre i Norrköping. Gemensamt för samtliga tillfrågade är att de anser att det byggs alltför lite anpassade bostäder för äldre. Detta återspeglar sig i ökade kostnader för bostadsanpassningsbidrag. I stora drag arbetar de tillfrågade kommunerna på samma sätt med handläggning av ärenden. För att komma tillrätta med de höga kostnaderna för bostadsanpassningsbidrag i Norrköpings kommun krävs att en mer omfattande undersökning görs. Enskilda ärenden skulle behöva jämföras för att se hur andra kommuner har beslutat, handlagt och upphandlat liknande fall.

The purpose of this report is to find a model of statistics for construction and demolition waste, which makes it useful for the local manager at the building site. The intention with the model is that it will be used as a support of the local manager, to direct his project towards reduced strain of the environment. The model will also be used to make it easier to control that the claims from authority and aims for the environment are achieved. To familiarise with the subject waste handling within the building and construction sectorI have done a literature search. I have also been studying rules and regulations regarding the waste handling. The main investigation is based on interviews with local managers. I have also spoken to waste contractors to get their view in the subject. To get to know how the local manager want the statistics formed I have made an opinion poll. The investigations have indicated that it is unusual that the statistics is used at the building site at all. Among the local managers there are an interest thought in having the statistics as a result of the separation of construction and demolition waste and an encouragement to go further with it. Economical information was in great demand in the statistics, because economy control most of the manager’s work. The local manager experiences that the accessibility of checking up how much of the waste that goes to deposition is good. In fact this is a problem, as part of the unsorted waste goes to deposition in next stage. Most of the statistics of the waste contractors don’t specifying how much.

Det finns olika system för att hantera och delge information till fastighetsägare och förvaltare. Dessa system är idag oftast pappersbaserade, oftast en pärm med information. Med den digitala tekniken kan man idag göra dessa handlingar mer attraktiva och lättillgängliga. Denna rapport, som är resultatet av mitt examensarbete, belyser vad ett vårdprogram är, hur det upprättas och vad det bör innehålla. Dessutom påvisas i rapporten hur man kan använda moderna IT-verktyg för att förenkla framställningen och redovisningen av vårdprogram. Den metod som använts i arbetet är inläsning av material och samtal med en arkitekt. Dessutom har jag utfört ett antal intervjuer med personer som arbetar med vårdprogram. Dessa intervjuer visar att de som förvaltar byggnader utan större kulturhistoriskt värde ofta använder IT-teknik i sitt arbete, medan de som förvaltar byggnader med dokumenterat kulturhistoriskt värde knappt använder IT över huvud taget. Flera av de jag intervjuat har svårt att se några fördelar alls med det traditionella systemet. En förutsättning för att införa den nya tekniken är att personalen får utbildning och att investeringar görs i program och hårdvara. Viktigt att tänka på är även att risken att förlora information kan vara större, t.ex. genom en diskkrasch, än med det traditionella systemet. Därför är det viktigt att man noga tänker igenom hur införandet ska genomföras.