IPCC SR15 rapporterade att alla framtida scenarier för att begränsa klimatförändringen till 1,5°C är starkt beroende av negativa utsläppstekniker, såsom geografisk CO2-lagring som används av Stockholm Exergi’s Värtaverket. Men kan man uppnå starkare klimatvinster genom en cirkulär koldioxidekonomi? Bildandet av en cirkulär koldioxidekonomi är absolut nödvändigt för att uppnå global koldioxidneutralitet, men hur kommer vi dit? Elektrolys av CO2 erbjuder en ekonomiskt och miljömässigt attraktiv väg för att uppgradera CO2-utsläpp till värdefulla bränslen och råvaror, vilket minskar användningen av fossila resurser och CO2-utsläpp till atmosfären. Detta examensarbete undersöker möjligheten att ta bort 720 000 ton-CO2-utsläpp från det avfallseldade kraftvärmeverket i Högdalen som fallstudie, via elektrokemisk reduktion av CO2 till eten, med målet att producera polymera konstruktionsmaterial, för att fungera som en kolsänka. Dessa polymerer har utvärderats utifrån kriterier som kapacitet som kolsänka, marknadsstorlek och LCA. Eten är den mest användbara råvarukemikalien för polymerproduktion och har ett betydande koldioxidavtryck på 1,73 ton CO2 per producerade eten. Att använda eCO2RR skulle minska betydande CO2-utsläpp och överbrygga luckan mellan fossila och förnybara resurser. Detta examensarbete föreslår en preliminär processdesign, komplett med en teknoekonomisk modell för att beräkna ekonomin, mass- och energibalanser för ett flertal scenarier. Över hundra elektrokatalysatorer har studerats i en litteraturgenomgång, där 5 st elektrokatalysator har valts ut baserat på olika styrkor i särskilda meritvärden, för att fastställa prestationsmål för lönsamhet. Den teknoekonomiska modellen drog slutsatsen att vid nuvarande prisläge på 700 SEK/MWh kunde ingen av elektrokatalysatorerna uppnå lönsamhet. Att sänka elpriset till LCOE för vindkraft till 335 SEK/MWh, blev resultaten mycket lönsamma, inklusive IRR upp till 41,3%. Modellparametrar ändrades för att fastställa de viktigaste variablerna i en omfattande känslighetsanalys. Vi kan dra slutsatsen att strömtätheter på 400-600 mA/cm2 är gynnsamma och med så låg bibehållen cellspänning som möjligt (<2,4V). Om man specifikt inriktar sig på eten som produkt kan det vara fördelaktigt att ytterligare öka lönsamheten genom att producera myr- eller ättiksyra som ett nästa steg, vilket har fördelen av enklare vätskegasseparering och för att undvika produktion av metan och etanol. För lönsamhet krävs en livstid på minst 2-4 år för elektrokatalysatorn (CCM), 10 år för stacken och 20 år för elektrolyssystemet. I miljöanalysen studerades massbalans-lagringen av CO2. Detta uppnåddes genom att ta bort de direkta utsläppen från Högdalenverket. De indirekta utsläppen förhindrades genom att ersätta konventionella processer av elkällans kolintensitet. Baserat på genomsnittet av elektrokatalysatorerna skulle värdlandet behöva kräva en kolintensitet för elproduktionen under 101 och 153 tCO₂/GWh för NET-direkt respektive indirekt CO2-avlägsnande. Följaktligen kan högre CO2-besparingar uppnås genom handel med koldioxidsnål svensk el till grannländer med mycket högre koldioxidintensitet. Totalt sett var den direkta koldioxidminskningen mellan 487 300 till 575 000 ton CO₂ och en indirekt minskning på mellan 1 065 000 till 1 219 000 ton CO₂, beroende på energieffektivitet och produkter. Den största utmaningen för kommersiell framgång för alla eCO2RR-projekt bortsett från de tekniska prestandaaspekterna är att nödvändiga förändringar i skatteregelverket behövs, så att el från elektrolysprojekt till gröna kemikalier blir skattebefriade, som jämförbart med förbränning av förnybar biomassa är befriad från CO2-skatter. / The IPCC SR15 reported that all future scenarios to limit climate change to 1.5°C are heavily reliant on negative emission technologies, such as geographical CO2 storage employed by Stockholm Exergi’s Värtaverket. But can stronger climate benefits be achieved through a circular carbon economy? The formation of a carbon circular economy is imperative towards achieving global carbon neutrality, but how do we get there? Electrolysis of CO2 offers an economically and environmentally attractive route to upgrade CO2 emissions to valuable fuels and feedstocks, thus reducing the use of fossil resources and CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, hence closing the cycle.  This thesis explores the possibility of removing the 720,000 tCO2 emissions of the case study waste-fired CHP plant, Stockholm Exergi’s Högdalenverket, via the electrochemical reduction of CO2 (eCO2RR) towards ethylene, with the goal of producing polymeric construction materials, to act as a carbon sink. These polymers were evaluated on criteria such as, capacity as a carbon sink, market size and LCA. Ethylene is the prevailing commodity chemical for polymer production and has a significant carbon footprint of 1.73 tonCO2 per tonne of ethylene produced. Displacement via the eCO2RR would prevent substantial CO2 emissions and bridge the gap between fossil and renewable resources.  This thesis describes a preliminary process design, complete with technoeconomic model to calculate the economics, mass and energy balances of numerous scenarios. Electrocatalyst data from an in-depth literature review comprising of over 100 catalysts was drawn, with 5 electrocatalyst candidates selected based on strengths in particular figures of merit, to determine performance targets for profitability. The technoeconomic model concluded that at the current price point of 700 SEK/MWh, none of the electrocatalysts could achieve profitability. Lowering the electricity price to the levelized-cost of electricity (LCOE) for wind, 335 SEK/MWh, yielded highly profitable results, including IRR up-to 41.3%. Model parameters were changed to determine the most important variables in an extensive sensitivity analysis. Concluding that performance targets require current densities of 400-600 mA/cm2 whilst maintaining as low cell voltage as possible (<2.4 V). When specifically targeting ethylene, it is beneficial to increase profitability through targeting more valuable, formic, or acetic acid, which has the advantage of easier liquid-gas separation and to avoid production of methane and ethanol. For stability, 2-4 years minimum is required for the catalyst-coated membrane (CCM), 10 years for the stack and 20 years for the electrolyser systems.    In the environmental analysis, capabilities for carbon storage were studied via CO2 balance. This was achieved by taking the direct emissions removed from Högdalenverket, the indirect emissions prevented by replacing conventional processes and by the carbon intensity of the electricity source. Based on the average energy efficiency and performance of the electrocatalysts, the host country would require a carbon intensity of electricity production below 101 and 153 tCO₂/GWh for NET direct and indirect CO2 removal, respectively. Consequently, higher CO2 savings were achieved by trading low-carbon Swedish electricity to neighbouring countries with much higher carbon intensities. Overall, the direct carbon reduction was between 487,300 to 575,000 tCO₂ and indirect reduction of between 1,065,000 to 1,219,000 tCO₂, subject to energy efficiency and targeted products.  It remains that aside from the technical performance aspects of the eCO2RR catalysts, the major roadblock towards the commercial success of all eCO2RR projects is the required adjustments to regulatory framework, such that electricity for electrolysis projects towards green chemicals exempt from taxes in a similar way to renewable biomass combustion exempt from CO2 taxes.

Today’s carbon constrained world with its increasing demand for cheap energy and a fossil fuel intensive fleet of power producers is making carbon capture and storage (CCS) desirable. Several CCS technologies are under investigation by various research and development groups globally. One of the more promising technologies is oxy-fuel combustion, since it produces a CO2 rich flue gas which requires minor processing to meet storage condition requirements. In this study the economics of an advanced super critical oxy-coal power plant burning lignite, simulated in-house was assessed. A robust and user-friendly financial tool box has been developed with commonly acceptable default parameter settings. Capital, operation and maintenance costs were estimated along with corresponding levelized cost of electricity and CO2 avoidance costs calculated using the detailed financial model developed. A levelized cost of electricity of 131 $/MWhrnet along with a levelized CO2 avoidance cost of 64 $/tonne was estimated for an ASC oxy-coal power plant with CO2 capture. Also a levelized cost of electricity of 83 $/MWhrnet was estimated for an ASC air-fired coal power plant without CO2 capture capabilities as the base plant. The price of electricity was observed to increase from 83 $/MWhrnet to 131 $/MWhrnet translating into a 57% increase. The sensitivity of the overall economics of the process was assessed to several parameters. The overall economics was found sensitive to the choice chemical engineering plant cost index (CEPCI), capacity factor, size of power plant, debt ratio, fuel price, interest rate, and construction duration.

In the last three decades, the electronic industry has registered a tremendous progress. The continuous and aggressive downsizing of the transistor feature sizes (CMOS scaling) has been the main driver of the astonishing growth and advancement of microelectronic industry. Currently, the CMOS scaling is almost reaching its limits. The gate oxide is now only a few atomic layers thick, and this extremely thin oxide causes a huge leakage current through the oxide. Therefore, a further reduction of the gate oxide thickness is extremely difficult and new materials with higher dielectric constant are being explored. However, the phenomena of oxide breakdown and reliability are still serious issues in these thin oxides. Oxide breakdown exhibits a soft breakdown behavior at low voltages, and this is posing as one of the most crucial reliability issues for scaling of the ultra-thin oxides. In addition, the stress-induced leakage current (SILC) due to oxide has emerged as a scaling problem for the non-volatile memory technologies. In this dissertation, a percolation modeling approach is introduced to study and understand the dramatic changes in the conductivity of a disordered medium. Two different simulation methods of percolative conduction, the site and bond percolation, are studied here. These are used in simulating the post-breakdown conduction inside the oxide. Adopting a Monte-Carlo method, oxide breakdown is modeled using a 2-D percolation theory. The breakdown statistics and post-breakdown characteristics of the oxide are computed using this model. In this work, the effects of different physical parameters, such as dimension and the applied stress are studied. The simulation results show that a thinning of oxide layer and increasing the oxide area result in softening of breakdown. It is observed that the breakdown statistics appear to follow Weibull characteristics. As revealed by simulations, the Weibull slope changes linearly with oxide thickness, while not having a significant change when the area is varied and when the amount of the applied stress is varied. It is shown that the simulation results are well correlated with the experimental data reported in the literature. In this thesis, studying the conduction through the oxide using percolation model, it was discovered that a critical or a quasi-critical phenomenon occurs depending on the oxide dimensions. The criticality of the phase-transition results in a hard breakdown while the soft breakdown occurs due to a quasi-critical nature of percolation for ultra-thin oxides. In the later part of the thesis, a quantum percolation model is studied in order to explain and model the stress induced leakage current. It is explained that due to the wave nature of electrons, the SILC can be modeled as a tunneling path through the stressed oxide with the smaller tunneling threshold compared to the virgin oxide. In addition to the percolation model, a Markov chain theory is introduced to simulate the movement of electron as a random walk inside the oxide, and the breakdown is simulated using this random-walk of electron through the accumulated traps inside the oxide. It is shown that the trapping-detrapping of electrons results in an electrical noise in the post-breakdown current having 1/f noise characteristics. Using simulation of a resistor network with Markov theory, the conductance of the oxide is computed. An analytical study of a 2-D site percolation system is conducted using recursive methods and useful closed-form expressions are derived for specialized networks.

In the last three decades, the electronic industry has registered a tremendous progress. The continuous and aggressive downsizing of the transistor feature sizes (CMOS scaling) has been the main driver of the astonishing growth and advancement of microelectronic industry. Currently, the CMOS scaling is almost reaching its limits. The gate oxide is now only a few atomic layers thick, and this extremely thin oxide causes a huge leakage current through the oxide. Therefore, a further reduction of the gate oxide thickness is extremely difficult and new materials with higher dielectric constant are being explored. However, the phenomena of oxide breakdown and reliability are still serious issues in these thin oxides. Oxide breakdown exhibits a soft breakdown behavior at low voltages, and this is posing as one of the most crucial reliability issues for scaling of the ultra-thin oxides. In addition, the stress-induced leakage current (SILC) due to oxide has emerged as a scaling problem for the non-volatile memory technologies. In this dissertation, a percolation modeling approach is introduced to study and understand the dramatic changes in the conductivity of a disordered medium. Two different simulation methods of percolative conduction, the site and bond percolation, are studied here. These are used in simulating the post-breakdown conduction inside the oxide. Adopting a Monte-Carlo method, oxide breakdown is modeled using a 2-D percolation theory. The breakdown statistics and post-breakdown characteristics of the oxide are computed using this model. In this work, the effects of different physical parameters, such as dimension and the applied stress are studied. The simulation results show that a thinning of oxide layer and increasing the oxide area result in softening of breakdown. It is observed that the breakdown statistics appear to follow Weibull characteristics. As revealed by simulations, the Weibull slope changes linearly with oxide thickness, while not having a significant change when the area is varied and when the amount of the applied stress is varied. It is shown that the simulation results are well correlated with the experimental data reported in the literature. In this thesis, studying the conduction through the oxide using percolation model, it was discovered that a critical or a quasi-critical phenomenon occurs depending on the oxide dimensions. The criticality of the phase-transition results in a hard breakdown while the soft breakdown occurs due to a quasi-critical nature of percolation for ultra-thin oxides. In the later part of the thesis, a quantum percolation model is studied in order to explain and model the stress induced leakage current. It is explained that due to the wave nature of electrons, the SILC can be modeled as a tunneling path through the stressed oxide with the smaller tunneling threshold compared to the virgin oxide. In addition to the percolation model, a Markov chain theory is introduced to simulate the movement of electron as a random walk inside the oxide, and the breakdown is simulated using this random-walk of electron through the accumulated traps inside the oxide. It is shown that the trapping-detrapping of electrons results in an electrical noise in the post-breakdown current having 1/f noise characteristics. Using simulation of a resistor network with Markov theory, the conductance of the oxide is computed. An analytical study of a 2-D site percolation system is conducted using recursive methods and useful closed-form expressions are derived for specialized networks.

Today???s carbon constrained world with its increasing demand for cheap energy and a fossil fuel intensive fleet of power producers is making carbon capture and storage (CCS) desirable. Several CCS technologies are under investigation by various research and development groups globally. One of the more promising technologies is oxy-fuel combustion, since it produces a CO2 rich flue gas which requires minor processing to meet storage condition requirements. In this study the economics of an advanced super critical oxy-coal power plant burning lignite, simulated in-house was assessed. A robust and user-friendly financial tool box has been developed with commonly acceptable default parameter settings. Capital, operation and maintenance costs were estimated along with corresponding levelized cost of electricity and CO2 avoidance costs calculated using the detailed financial model developed. A levelized cost of electricity of 131 $/MWhrnet along with a levelized CO2 avoidance cost of 64 $/tonne was estimated for an ASC oxy-coal power plant with CO2 capture. Also a levelized cost of electricity of 83 $/MWhrnet was estimated for an ASC air-fired coal power plant without CO2 capture capabilities as the base plant. The price of electricity was observed to increase from 83 $/MWhrnet to 131 $/MWhrnet translating into a 57% increase. The sensitivity of the overall economics of the process was assessed to several parameters. The overall economics was found sensitive to the choice chemical engineering plant cost index (CEPCI), capacity factor, size of power plant, debt ratio, fuel price, interest rate, and construction duration.

La problématique de cette thèse porte sur les conditions technico-économiques et sociales d’émergence des techniques de Captage, transport et Stockage géologique du Carbone (CSC) dans le secteur électrique. Il existe effectivement un hiatus entre le niveau actuel de déploiement du CSC et son rôle dans les scénarii climatique de long terme. Les travaux s’appuient sur deux approches complémentaires ; l’approche positive met en exergue les déterminants économiques et sociaux nécessaires à l’émergence du CSC et répond à deux interrogations : pour quel prix du CO2 devient-il intéressant d’investir dans des centrales CSC ? Quand l’usage du CSC est-il socialement optimal ? Sur le plan normatif, diverses recommandations relatives au déploiement optimal du CSC sont apportées. Elles concernent notamment le portefeuille optimal d’instruments de soutien au CSC. Cette thèse s’articule en quatre chapitres. Dans l’optique de minimiser les coûts de la transition énergétique, les deux premiers chapitres embrassent la vision investisseur et mettent en évidence les déterminants économiques indispensables au déploiement commercial du CSC. Les deux derniers chapitres adoptent la vision de la puissance publique. Bien que compétitive, une technologie peut ne pas se développer du fait de problèmes d’acceptabilité sociale ; c’est l’objet du modèle du Chapitre 3. Le Chapitre 4 élargit le propos et intègre la problématique de décision dans le CSC en univers ambigu, en s’appuyant sur des simulations numériques. / This thesis analyses the techno-economic and social conditions required for the emergence of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) techniques in the power sector, in compliance with CCS role in long-term mitigation scenarios. The research combines two complementary approaches: the positive one deals with the economic and social determinants necessary to trigger CCS investments, and addresses two significant issues: (1) for which CO2 price is it worth investing in CCS plants, and (2) when is CCS use socially optimal? The normative approach gives recommendations on how CCS can best be deployed as part of a least cost approach to climate change mitigation. Notably, recommendations are provided about the optimal combination of CCS policy supports that should be implemented. This Ph.D. dissertation is composed of four chapters. The first two chapters embrace the investor’s vision and highlight the determinants necessary for CCS commercial emergence. The last two chapters embrace the public decision-makers’ vision. Based on the fact that, although cost-effective, one technology may not be deployed because of social acceptance issues, Chapter 3 deals with CCS public acceptance and optimal pollution. Chapter 4 goes further and addresses the optimal CCS investment under ambiguity by providing a decision criterion with simulations on the European Union’s 2050 Energy Roadmap.

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Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:55:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 545117 bytes, checksum: 7ad3378bf0c824361e4be8d29161719b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-07-12 / The purpose this work was to evaluate milk quality in different production systems and its variation throughout the year. The database used in this work were from 943 milk farms from different regions: south, midwest and central of state of Minas Gerais and Vale Paraíba, state of São Paulo. Data totaled 18.026 samples, collected between January (2009) and September (2011), and it was granted by Danone Firm. The milk farms were classified in three different production systems: confined, semi-confined and extensive system (grass fed). Somatic cells count (SCC), total bacterial count (TBC) and milk protein and fat contents were evaluated. The data was analyzed in a completely randomized design in a repeated measured scheme, and theproc MIXED procedure of SAS (2008) was used. The production system did not affect milk protein and fat contents, neither the SCC. However, the production system affected the TBC, indicating that TBC is related to the available structure for feeding animals. It is possible that the results are consequence of a payment program for quality, whichwas started by the milk industry in 2002. Seasonal variations in results of SCC, CBT and milk protein and fat contents were observed. The milk protein content was greater between March and June, while the milk fat content was greater between May and August. TBC and SCC were greater between December and March. In conclusion, production system does not affect milk protein and fat contents, neither SCC. However, confined systems have better TBC results. Furthermore, month and year affect the milk quality (TBC, SCC, milk protein and fat content results), where better results are observed in cold seasons. / Objetivou-se avaliar a qualidade do leite cru em diferentes sistemas de produção e sua variação ao longo do ano. Os dados utilizados nesse trabalho foram obtidos de 943 propriedades leiteiras das regiões do Sul de Minas, Centro-Oeste e Central Mineira no estado de Minas Gerais e na região do Vale do Paraíba no estado de São Paulo. Os mesmos foram concedidos pela Empresa Danone, em um total de 18.026 amostras, no período de janeiro de 2009 a setembro de 2011. As propriedades foram divididas em sistema de produção confinado, semi-confinado e extensivo. Os itens avaliados foram contagem de células somáticas (CCS), contagem bacteriana total (CBT) e teores de proteína e gordura. Os dados foram analisados em esquema de medidas repetidas no tempo, utilizando o procedimento proc MIXED do SAS (2008). Não houve efeito de sistema de produção sobre os teores de proteína, gordura e CCS. Já a CBT foi afetada pelo sistema de produção estando relacionada com o tipo de estrutura para alimentar os animais. Possivelmente, os resultados são consequência do programa de pagamento por qualidade implantando pelo laticínio desde o ano de 2002. Foram encontradas variações sazonais de CCS, CBT, proteína e gordura; sendo os valores de proteína mais elevados de Março a Junho, os valores de gordura mais elevados de Maio a Agosto, os valores de CBT e CCS mais elevados de Dezembro a Março.Conclui-se que o sistema de produção não interfere na porcentagem de gordura e proteína e CCS do leite. No entanto, sistemas confinados apresentam melhor padrão de CBT. Conclui-se, também, que tanto mês quanto ano são fatores que interferem na CBT, CCS, proteína e gordura do leite, sendo os melhores padrões encontrados nas épocas mais frias do ano.

Submitted by Cláudia Bueno (claudiamoura18@gmail.com) on 2016-01-08T15:32:37Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Thamara Venâncio de Almeida - 2015.pdf: 1390852 bytes, checksum: 5f0b1c9700873dd65b4e3d743efec82f (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-01-11T06:39:56Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Thamara Venâncio de Almeida - 2015.pdf: 1390852 bytes, checksum: 5f0b1c9700873dd65b4e3d743efec82f (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-01-11T06:39:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Thamara Venâncio de Almeida - 2015.pdf: 1390852 bytes, checksum: 5f0b1c9700873dd65b4e3d743efec82f (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-21 / For assessing compliance with the quality requirements established by the Normative Instruction No. 62, a milk sample each property or community tank should be analyzed on a monthly basis by one of the laboratories accredited by the Brazilian Laboratories Network for Milk Quality Control . There are still doubts about what would be the maximum temperature and the time of milk sample storage without jeopardizing the results of the electronic analysis. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of temperature and storage time of cooled samples of raw milk on the results of milk quality electronic analysis. Refrigerated raw milk samples were collected from expansion tanks for individual use of farms located in the middle region of the state of Goiás, and stored at four different temperatures (3 °C, 11 °C, 17 °C and 25 °C) for 16 days. Total bacterial count (TBC), somatic cell count (SCC) and chemical composition were performed daily. The results were submitted to analysis of variance in split plot design in randomized blocks, and the means were compared by Duncan test. We concluded that, when azidiol is added as preservative to samples for TBC, they can be analyzed up to 16 days after collection when stored at temperatures of 3 °C and 11 °C, and up to 10 days when stored at 17 °C. Moreover, when bronopol is added as preservative, samples for SCC and chemical composition analysis can be stored for up to 16 days after collection when stored at temperatures of 3 °C and 11 °C, and for up to seven days when stored at 17 °C. / Para a avaliação do cumprimento dos requisitos de qualidade estabelecidos pela Instrução Normativa nº 62, uma amostra de leite de cada propriedade ou tanque comunitário deve ser analisada mensalmente por um dos laboratórios credenciados pela Rede Brasileira de Laboratórios de Controle da Qualidade do Leite. Ainda existem dúvidas sobre quais seriam a temperatura e o tempo máximos de armazenamento das amostras de leite sem que houvesse comprometimento dos resultados das análises eletrônicas. Objetivou-se com este trabalho avaliar os efeitos da temperatura e do tempo de armazenamento de amostras de leite cru refrigerado nos resultados das análises eletrônicas da qualidade do leite. Amostras de leite cru refrigerado foram coletadas de tanques de expansão de uso individual de fazendas localizadas na mesorregião Centro Goiano no Estado de Goiás e armazenadas em quatro temperaturas diferentes (3°C, 11°C, 17°C e 25°C) durante 16 dias. Foram realizadas diariamente análises de contagem bacteriana total (CBT), contagem de células somáticas (CCS) e composição química. Os resultados obtidos foram submetidos à análise de variância em esquema de parcelas subdivididas no tempo em delineamento de blocos ao acaso e as médias comparadas pelo teste de Duncan. Concluiu-se que as amostras destinadas à análise de CBT, adicionadas do conservante azidiol, podem ser analisadas por até 16 dias após a coleta quando armazenadas em temperaturas de 3°C e 11°C e por até 10 dias quando armazenadas a 17°C. E as amostras destinadas às análises de CCS e composição química, adicionadas do conservante bronopol, podem ser analisadas por até 16 dias após a coleta quando armazenadas em temperaturas de 3°C e 11°C e por até sete dias quando armazenadas a 17°C.

Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs (GoA 4/UTO) auf ETCS und weitere ZZS-Umsysteme. Dafür werden die verschiedenen Rahmenbedingungen systematisch untersucht. Es werden Basisfunktionen und Umsysteme aufgestellt, um den GoA 4-Betrieb zu beschreiben. Es wird gezeigt, dass der GoA 4-Betrieb zum aktuellen Zeitpunkt in Deutschland nicht rechtssicher durchführbar ist und die aktuellen betrieblichen Regelwerke nicht geeignet sind. Die Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass ETCS für den GoA 4-Betrieb geeignet und eine Weiterentwicklung der Spezifikation angebracht ist. Es entstehen neue Schnittstellen. Ein Vergleich der Automatisierungsgrade offenbart teils deutliche systemische Unterschiede. Die Fernsteuerung der Fahrzeuge und Fahrzeugbedienungen ist ein elementares System zur Anwendung in der Rückfallebene in niedrigeren Automatisierungsgraden. Insgesamt besteht ein hoher Anpassungsaufwand gegenüber den aktuell gültigen Anforderungen, was sich z. B. durch signifikant höhere Konnektivitätsanforderungen zeigt.:1 Einleitung 2 Rahmenbedingungen des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs 3 Funktionen und Umsysteme des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs 4 Einfluss des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs auf ETCS 5 Systemische Unterschiede der Automatisierungsgrade 6 Vertiefte Betrachtung ausgewählter Aspekte 7 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick / The objective of this diploma thesis is to analyse the effects of fully automatic rail operations (GoA 4/UTO) on ETCS and further CCS systems. For this purpose, the various framework conditions are systematically investigated. Basic functions and further systems are defined in order to describe UTO. It is shown that UTO is not legally feasible in Germany at present and that the current operational regulations are not suitable. This thesis concludes that ETCS is suitable for application in GoA 4 and that the further development of the specification is reasonable. New interfaces are emerging. A comparison between the grades of automation partly reveals significant systemic differences. The remote control of vehicles and vehicle operations is a fundamental system for use in the fall-back level at lower grades of automation. Overall, there is a high need for adjustments compared to the currently existing requirements, which is shown, e. g., by significantly higher connectivity requirements.:1 Einleitung 2 Rahmenbedingungen des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs 3 Funktionen und Umsysteme des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs 4 Einfluss des vollautomatischen Bahnbetriebs auf ETCS 5 Systemische Unterschiede der Automatisierungsgrade 6 Vertiefte Betrachtung ausgewählter Aspekte 7 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick