Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are recognized by different cellular pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), which are expressed on cell membrane or in the cytoplasm of cells of the innate immune system. Nucleic acids derived from pathogens or from certain cellular conditions represent a large category of PAMPs/DAMPs that trigger production of type I interferons (IFN-I) in addition to pro-inflammatory cytokines, by specifically binding to intracellular Toll-like receptors or cytosolic receptors. These cytosolic receptors, which are not related to TLRs and we call them "Toll-free" receptors, include the RNA-sensing RIG-I like receptors (RLRs), the DNA-sensing HIN200 family, and cGAS, amongst others. Viruses have evolved myriad strategies to evoke both host cellular and viral factors to evade IFN-I-mediated innate immune responses, to facilitate their infection, replication, and establishment of latency. This review outlines these "Toll-free" innate immune pathways and recent updates on their regulation, with focus on cellular and viral factors with enzyme activities.

Immunotherapy offers a promising approach to cancer treatment by harnessing a patient’s own immune system to fight malignant cells. However, the clinical application of immunotherapy has been hindered by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment generated by cancer cells as a mechanism to impede immune function and evade immune detection. Clinically used immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive cell therapy, aim to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment by blocking key regulatory pathways and exogenously activating immune cells. While effective against some cancers, these therapies are still limited by systemic toxicity, poor delivery kinetics, and continuous tumor adaptation that leads to immune escape. Herein, we propose the synthesis of nanoscale branching DNA architectures, known as dendrons, to (1) encode and deliver a DNA sequence, termed G3YSD, capable of activating the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway; and (2) deliver epigenetic modifiers to reprogram immunosuppressive cues in tumor cells. This solution exploits the modularity, programmability, and ease of control over DNA synthesis to generate architectures that exhibit improved delivery kinetics and favorable presentation of cargo to enhance immunomodulatory effects. Our proposed solution directly targets immunosuppressive mechanisms in tumor cells to sensitize them to immune attack and make them more easily recognized by the immune system. Delivery of G3YSD-encoding dendrons to murine B16 melanoma significantly increased the expression of major histocompatibility complex I (MHC I) and programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) surface-bound receptors, which are critical for immune signaling pathways. The chemical conjugation of romidepsin, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, to G3YSD-encoding dendrons resulted in more than a 2-fold increase in MHC I expression compared to unconjugated G3YSD sequences and free romidepsin, indicating that the spatial arrangement and presentation of romidepsin has a synergistic impact on cGAS-STING signaling. In addition, pretreatment of B16 melanoma cells with zebularine, a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, followed by G3YSD-encoding dendrons significantly increased levels of cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated lysis in a physiologically relevant co-culture. Developing novel architectures capable of interacting with tumor cells to remodel and overcome immunosuppressive cues will lead to significant advances in the field of immunotherapeutic design and cancer treatment. / 2026-05-23T00:00:00Z

Die myotone Dystrophie ist eine Multisystemerkrankung, die sich hauptsächlich durch Myotonie, Muskelschwäche, sowie einen früh beginnenden Katarakt und kardiale Erregungsleitungsstörungen auszeichnet. Im Laufe der Zeit wurden zwei Typen dieser Erkrankung definiert, welche auf unterschiedlichen genetischen Defekten basieren. Dem Typ 1 der myotonen Dystrophie (DM1) liegt eine Expansion der CTG-Wiederholungssequenz im 3‘-untranslatierten Bereich des myotonic dystrophy protein kinase (DMPK) Gens auf dem Chromosom 19q13.3 zugrunde. Der myotone Dystrophie Typ 2 (DM2) wird hingegen durch eine Expansion der CCTG-Wiederholungssequenz im Intron 1 des CCHC-type zinc finger nucleic acid binding protein (CNBP) Gens auf Chromosom 3q21 verursacht. Trotz ähnlicher klinischer Symptome und pathologischer Mechanismen konnten wichtige Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Typen aufgedeckt werden. Daher müssen beide Formen der myotonen Dystrophie als eigenständige Erkrankungen betrachtet werden. Vorarbeiten der Günther-Arbeitsgruppe sowie zwei unabhängige Studien konnten ein erhöhtes Vorkommen von Autoimmunerkrankungen bei DM2 Patienten im Vergleich zur gesunden Population und zu DM1 Patienten feststellen. In dieser Arbeit wurde zudem eine erhöhte Expression von Interferon stimulierten Genen (ISGs) in Fibroblasten von DM2 Patienten nachgewiesen. Eine chronische Interferon Produktion kann zu der Entwicklung von Autoimmunerkrankungen führen, bei denen das körpereigene Immunsystem nicht nur pathogene, sondern auch endogene Strukturen angreift. Warum Autoimmunerkrankungen bei DM2 Patienten häufiger auftreten, war bisher nicht bekannt. Daher war das Ziel dieser Arbeit den zugrundeliegenden Mechanismus für dieses Phänomen zu untersuchen. Rezeptoren des Immunsystems können modifizierte Nukleinsäuren erkennen, wenn diese in hoher Konzentration in der Umgebung des Rezeptors vorliegen. Daher wurde zunächst die Lokalisation der in DM2 Patienten Fibroblasten zahlreich vorkommenden CCTG Wiederholungssequenzen untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die DM2 spezifischen RNA Wiederholungssequenzen nicht nur im Nukleus, sondern auch im Zytoplasma auftraten. Eine direkte Erkennung dieser zytosolischen RNA Wiederholungssequenzen durch die im Zytoplasma lokalisierten RNA Rezeptoren konnte jedoch nicht nachgewiesen werden. Allerdings konnte die Translation dieser RNA Wiederholungssequenzen durch den Prozess der Repeat assoziierten non-ATG (RAN) Translation mittels Nachweis der RAN Proteine LPAC und QAGR festgestellt werden. Diese RAN Proteine, sowie die Akkumulation der RNA Wiederholungssequenzen können einen zellulären Stress in den DM2 Patienten Fibroblasten auslösen, der sich in einem chronischen endoplasmatischen Retikulum (ER) Stress manifestierte. Der chronische ER Stress in den Fibroblasten von DM2 Patienten zeichnet sich vor allem durch eine Aktivierung des ATF6 Signalweges aus, um die Anpassung der Zellen an langanhaltenden Stress zu unterstützen. Interessanterweise zeigte sich eine Verbindung zwischen der erhöhten ISG Expression und der Aktivierung des ATF6 Signalweges, da eine Herunterregulierung von ATF6 in DM2 Patienten Fibroblasten zu einer Verringerung der erhöhten ISG Expression führte. Der chronische Stress innerhalb der Patienten Fibroblasten erfasste auch die Mitochondrien, was durch eine erhöhte Menge von mitochondrialen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS), sowie eine Herunterregulierung von wichtigen mitochondrialen Genen gezeigt wurde. Bemerkenswerterweise war ein erhöhtes Vorkommen mitochondrialer DNA (mtDNA) im Zytoplasma der DM2 Patienten detektierbar, wobei eine erhöhte Apoptose Rate als Auslöser für die mtDNA Freilassung ausgeschlossen werden konnte. Durch eine Depletierung der mtDNA wurde ebenfalls eine Verringerung der ISG Expression in DM2 Patienten Fibroblasten erreicht. Dies wies nicht nur daraufhin, dass die mtDNA in die erhöhte Interferon Produktion in den Patientenzellen beteiligt ist, sondern auch auf eine Verbindung zwischen dem ER und den Mitochondrien. Um zu verstehen, wie mtDNA zu einer erhöhten Interferon Produktion führen kann, wurde der zytosolische DNA Rezeptor cGAS sowie das nachfolgende Adapterprotein STING herunterreguliert. Erstaunlicherweise führten diese Herunterregulierungen zu einer Verringerung der ISG Expression in Fibroblasten von DM2 Patienten. Dies deutet daraufhin, dass die erhöhte Produktion von Interferon in den Zellen der DM2 Patienten durch die Aktivierung des cGAS-STING Signalweges ausgelöst wird. In dieser Arbeit konnte eine erhöhte Stressantwort in Fibroblasten von DM2 Patienten festgestellt werden, die möglicherweise durch die gemeinsame Akkumulierung von RNA Wiederholungssequenzen und RAN Proteinen im Zytoplasma ausgelöst wird. Dieser Stress äußert sich in chronischem ER- und mitochondrialem Stress und führt zu einer Permeabilisierung der mitochondrialen Membran einzelner Mitochondrien. Dadurch können geringe Mengen mtDNA in das Zytoplasma freigesetzt werden, ohne den Prozess der Apoptose auszulösen. Die zytosolische mtDNA aktiviert den cGAS-STING Signalweg und führt zu einer erhöhten Produktion von Interferon, welche die Patienten für die Entwicklung von Autoimmunerkrankung prädisponiert. Durch den in dieser Arbeit aufgedeckten Mechanismus eröffnen sich potentielle therapeutische Ansatzpunkte für die bisher nicht behandelbare Erkrankung. Eine Hemmung des cGAS-STING Signalweges könnte die Entwicklung von Autoimmunerkrankungen bei den DM2 Patienten reduzieren. Dies ließe sich durch die Einbeziehung von DM2 Patienten in klinische Studien mit cGAS oder STING Inhibitoren prüfen. / Myotonic dystrophy, a multi-systemic disorder, is primarily characterised by myotonia, muscle weakness, early-onset cataracts, and cardiac conduction defects. Over time, two distinct types of this disease have been defined, each with unique genetic defects. Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is caused by a CTG repeat expansion in the 3’ untranslated region of the myotonic dystrophy protein kinase (DMPK) gene on chromosome 19q13.3. In contrast, myotonic dystrophy type 2 (DM2) is caused by a CCTG repeat expansion in intron 1 of the CCHC-type zinc finger nucleic acid binding protein (CNBP, former known as ZNF9) gene on chromosome 3q21. Despite the similarity in clinical presentation and pathological mechanisms, crucial differences between the two types have been uncovered, necessitating their consideration as distinct disease entities. Preliminary investigations by the Günther group, along with two independent studies have revealed a higher prevalence of autoimmune disorders in DM2 patients compared to the healthy population and DM1 patients. Furthermore, the current study has demonstrated an upregulation of interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) in fibroblasts derived from DM2 patients. Chronic interferon production can lead to the development of autoimmune disorders, causing the body´s immune system to mistakenly attack not only pathogens but also endogenous structures. Such misdirected immune responses can result in severe symptoms, significantly compromising the patients’ quality of life. The underlying mechanism for the increased incidence of autoimmune disorders in DM2 patients remains elusive, and this study aimed to unravel the mechanism responsible for this phenomenon. Innate receptors of the immune system can recognise modified nucleic acids when present in high concentrations in the receptor’s environment. Therefore, the localisation of the abundant CCTG repeats in DM2 patient fibroblast was investigated. Accumulation of these repeats was observed not only in the nucleus but also in the cytoplasm. However, there was no evidence for direct recognition of these cytosolic RNA repeats by cytoplasmic RNA receptors. Nevertheless, the translation of these RNA repeats through the process of repeat-associated non-ATG (RAN) translation was confirmed by the detection of the RAN proteins LPAC and QAGR. These RAN proteins and the accumulation of RNA repeats may contribute to cellular stress response, manifesting as chronic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in fibroblasts derived from DM2 patients. Chronic ER stress in DM2 patient fibroblasts is characterised by the activation of the ATF6 signalling pathway, which is thought to support the adaptation of cells to prolonged stress. Interestingly, a connection between the increased ISG expression levels and ATF6 pathway activation was established, as a reduction of ATF6 in DM2 patient fibroblasts led to a reduction of ISG levels. The chronic stress within the patient fibroblasts also extended to the mitochondria. Evidence of mitochondrial stress was found in the form of increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and downregulation of essential mitochondrial genes. Notably, an increased presence of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in the cytoplasm of DM2 patient fibroblasts was detected, although its release due to a high apoptosis rate was ruled out. Remarkably, depletion of this mtDNA also resulted in a reduction of ISG expression levels in DM2 patient fibroblasts, indicating the involvement of mtDNA in the increased interferon production in these patients and a connection between the ER and mitochondria. To elucidate how mtDNA can lead to increased interferon production, knockdowns of the cytoplasmic DNA sensing receptor cGAS and the downstream adaptor protein STING were performed. Surprisingly, this genetic manipulation led to a reduction of ISG expression levels in DM2 patient fibroblasts, suggesting that the increased interferon production in DM2 patients is triggered by the activation of the cGAS-STING signalling pathway. This study unveils a heightened stress response in fibroblast derived from DM2 patients. This elevated stress is likely triggered by the combined effect of the RNA repeat accumulation and the presence of RAN proteins in the cytoplasm, manifesting as chronic ER and mitochondrial stress. This persistent stress may lead to the selective permeabilization of mitochondrial membranes, allowing the release of mtDNA into the cytoplasm without inducing apoptosis. Remarkably, this cytoplasmic mtDNA activates the cGAS-STING signalling pathway, resulting in increased interferon production. This cascade of events predisposes DM2 patients to developing autoimmune disorders. The mechanism revealed in this study opens up a new perspective on potential therapies for DM2 patients, as effective treatments have been lacking thus far. The involvement of the cGAS-STING pathway provides the opportunity to explore the use of cGAS or STING inhibitors, which are currently in clinical trials, as a therapeutic approach for DM2 patients.

Le virus de l’hépatite B (HBV) est l’agent étiologique de l’hépatite B. Ce virus est responsable d’hépatite chronique B, de cirrhose et de cancer du foie au niveau mondial. L’absence d’activation de la voie Interféron (IFN) suite à l’infection par HBV est encore mal comprise. Récemment, le senseur cellulaire cytosolic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) a été décrit comme un senseur efficace de DNA double brin possédant également une activité antivirale envers des virus à ADN et à ARN. Le but de mes travaux de thèse a été de contribuer à la compréhension des relations existants entre le HBV et cGAS, à des stades précoces et tardifs de l’infection HBV en utilisant des expériences de perte- et gain- de function ainsi que du profilage génomique des génes apparentés à cGAS dans un modéle cellulaire permissif au HBV. Mes travaux ont démontré (1) que cGAS exerce une forte activité antivirale envers le HBV incluant une réduction de la forme nucléaire du génome, le cccDNA; (2) alors que le rcDNA génomique nu est reconnu par la voie cGAS/STING et induit une réponse IFN efficace, la nucléocapside virale protège le DNA génomique viral et l’empêche d’être détecté par la réponse immunitaire innée; et (3) que l’infection par HBV diminue l’expression des acteurs de la voie cGAS-STING et des gènes impliqués dans la réponse immunitaire innée in vitro et in vivo. Ce dernier point met en lumière le rôle de cGAS dans un nouveau mécanisme d’échappement du HBV au système immunitaire inné dans les cellules hépatocytaires et dans ce mécanisme. / Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major cause of liver disease and cancer worldwide. The mechanisms of viral genome sensing and the evasion of innate immune responses by HBV infection are still poorly understood. Recently, the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) was identified as a DNA sensor. In this PhD work, we aimed to investigate the functional role of cGAS in sensing of HBV infection and elucidate the mechanisms of viral evasion. We performed functional studies including loss- and gain-of-function experiments combined with cGAS effector gene expression profiling in an HBV infection-susceptible cell culture model. Collectively, our data show that (1) the cGAS-STING pathway exhibits robust antiviral activity against HBV infection including reduction of viral cccDNA levels; (2) naked HBV genomic rcDNA is sensed in a cGAS-dependent manner whereas packaging of the viral genome during infection abolishes host cell recognition of viral nucleic acids; (3) HBV infection down-regulates the cGAS/STING pathway actors as well as innate immune effector gene expression in vitro and vivo. Overall, this work led to describing new aspects of the complex interaction between HBV and the DNA sensor cGAS in hepatocytes.

Les acides nucléiques sont des activateurs puissants des réponses immunitaires innées. Pour lutter contre les infections, les organismes multicellulaires ont développé de multiples façons de détecter les agents pathogènes. L'une d'entre elles est la reconnaissance de l'ADN dans le cytoplasme. La présence d'ADN dans le cytoplasme est généralement liée à des infections par des bactéries ou des virus comme le VIH. La GMP-AMP synthase cyclique (cGAS) est un capteur cytosolique essentiel de l'ADN chez les mammifères. Lors de la reconnaissance de l'ADN, cGAS synthétise le petit second messager cyclique GMP-AMP (cGAMP), qui active les voies de signalisation de l’immunité innée. De plus, cGAS joue un rôle central en réponse aux microbes et au développement de maladies auto-immunes comme les interféronopathies. Cette thèse examine le rôle de cGAS en réponse aux virus et à l’ADN du soi. En explorant la réponse médiée par cGAS en présence du VIH, nous avons constaté que dans les cellules produisant du virus, le cGAMP synthétisé par cGAS est contenu dans des particules virales et des vésicules extracellulaires. Les particules virales délivrent efficacement cGAMP aux cellules cibles et activent une réponse antivirale puissante. Le transfert de cGAMP nécessite une activité catalytique de cGAS et une fusion des particules virales avec les cellules cibles. Nous avons également montré que dans le contexte d'une infection, les virus à ADN tels que MVA et mCMV peuvent conditionner cGAMP. Par conséquent, le transfert de cGAMP médié par une infection virale est un mécanisme de défense généralisé du système immunitaire inné. Nous avons également étudié l'activation du cGAS par l'ADN en se concentrant sur l'ADN de la chromatine nucléaire. Dans les cellules eucaryotes, l'ADN est compartimenté dans deux organelles: le noyau et les mitochondries. La compartimentation nucléaire de l'ADN peut être transitoirement perdue lors de la rupture de l'enveloppe nucléaire pendant la division cellulaire et lors des ruptures d'enveloppes nucléaires dans les cellules dendritiques migrantes (DC). Nous avons constaté que la rupture de l'enveloppe nucléaire ou la perte de l'intégrité de l'enveloppe nucléaire entraînent un recrutement de cGAS sur l'ADN nucléaire. Nous avons également montré que les DC présentent un pool nucléaire de cGAS à l'état basal. La rupture de l'enveloppe nucléaire pendant le cycle cellulaire conduit au recrutement de cGAS à l'ADN nucléaire. En jouant sur la localisation cGAS, nous avons montré que le cGAS est peu actif lorsqu'il se trouve dans le noyau et la transfection d'ADN exogène permet son activité enzymatique complète. L'expression du cGAS localisé dans le noyau des DC a conduit à la maturation des DC et à la production d'interféron de type I (IFN). La région N-terminale de cGAS régule la distribution nucléaire / cytoplasmique de cGAS dans les cellules en interphases et nous avons établi que les lamines A / C sont requises pour l'accès de cGAS à l'ADN nucléaire dans les DC migrantes. De façon inattendue, nous montrons que cGAS n'est pas activé lors de la rupture de l'enveloppe nucléaire. Enfin, nous identifions l'hétérochromatine pericentromérique comme étant l'ADN de liaison préférentielle pour le cGAS nucléaire exprimé dans les DC. Au total, notre étude montre que le noyau agit comme un site intracellulaire immunitaire privilégié pour l'activation de cGAS. Collectivement, nous avons montré une pertinence de l'activation de cGAS lors d'une infection virale et découvert un mécanisme « cheval de Troie » de l'incorporation de cGAMP dans la progénie virale. Nous avons également décrit des mécanismes, encore à définir, qui limitent les réponses à l'ADN de la chromatine dans le noyau. À mesure que les preuves augmentent sur la prise en charge de cGAS en réponse à des agents pathogènes, dans des maladies auto-immunes, en réponse aux dommages causés par l'ADN et dans le développement de la sénescence cellulaire, (...) / Nucleic acids are potent activators of innate immune responses. To control infections, multicellular organisms have developed multiple ways to detect pathogens. One of these is the recognition of DNA in the cytoplasm. Presence of DNA in the cytoplasm is usually linked to infections by bacteria or viruses, such as HIV. Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) is an essential cytosolic sensor for DNA in mammals. Upon DNA recognition, cGAS synthetizes the small second messenger cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP), which activates innate immune signaling pathways. cGAS plays a pivotal role in response to microbes and in the development of autoimmune diseases such as interferonopathies. This thesis investigate the role of cGAS in response to viruses and to self DNA. By exploring the cGAS-mediated response to HIV, we found that in cells producing virus, cGAS-synthesized cGAMP is packaged in viral particles and extracellular vesicles. Viral particles efficiently deliver cGAMP to target cells and activate a potent antiviral response. The transfer of cGAMP requires cGAS catalytic activity and fusion of the viral particles with the target cells. We also showed that in the context of an infection, DNA viruses such as MVA and mCMV can package cGAMP. Therefore viral mediated cGAMP transfer is a generalized defense mechanism of the innate immune system. We further investigated cGAS activation by DNA focusing our attention on nuclear chromatin DNA. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is compartmentalized in two organelles: the nucleus and the mitochondrion. Nuclear compartmentalization of DNA can be transiently lost upon nuclear envelope breakdown during cell division and upon nuclear envelope ruptures in migrating dendritic cells (DCs). We found that nuclear envelope breakdown or loss of nuclear envelope integrity leads to cGAS recruitment on the nuclear DNA. We also showed that DCs present with a nuclear pool of cGAS at steady state. Nuclear envelope breakdown during cell cycle leads to cGAS recruitment to the nuclear DNA. By manipulating cGAS localization, we showed that cGAS is poorly active when in the nucleus, and that providing exogenous DNA unmasked its full enzymatic activity. Expression of nuclear localized-cGAS in DCs leads to DCs maturation and Type I interferon (IFN) production. The N-terminal region of cGAS regulates cGAS nuclear/cytoplasmic distribution in interphase cells and we established Lamin A/C as required for cGAS accessibility to nuclear DNA in migrating DCs. Unexpectedly, we show that cGAS is not activated upon nuclear envelope rupture. Finally, we identify the pericentromeric heterochromatin as the preferential binding DNA for expressed nuclear cGAS in DCs. Altogether, our study shows the nucleus to act as an intracellular immune-privileged site for the activation of cGAS. Collectively, we have shown relevance of cGAS activation upon viral infection and uncovered a Trojan horse mechanism of cGAMP incorporation in the viral progeny. We have also described yet to be defined regulatory mechanisms that limit responses towards chromatin DNA in the nucleus. As evidence grows for cGAS involvement in response to pathogens, in autoimmune diseases, in response to DNA damage and in the development of cell senescence, fully understanding the mechanisms of distinction between self and pathogen related DNA by the sensor will be important to develop effective means to regulate the pathway.

Les inhibiteurs de poly(ADP-ribose) polymérase (PARPi) ciblent sélectivement les cellules porteuses de défauts des voies de réparation de l’ADN tels que les mutations de BRCA1/2 et les défauts d’ERCC1. Sur le plan clinique, plusieurs PARPi ont été approuvés pour le traitement des cancers BRCA-mutés ou platine-sensibles du sein et de l’ovaire, et des essais cliniques sont en cours pour évaluer l’efficacité des PARPi dans le cancer bronchique non-à-petites cellules (CBNPC) platine-sensible. Alors que les PARPi ont un fort potentiel thérapeutique dans les cancers comportant des défauts de réparation de l’ADN, de plus en plus d’essais cliniques évaluent également l’efficacité de ces médicaments en combinaison avec les « inhibiteurs d’immune checkpoints » (ICI) dans diverses populations de patients. Dans ce contexte, il est essentiel de mieux comprendre comment les PARPi modulent la réponse immunitaire anti-tumorale, et d’étudier le potentiel immunologique inhérent de ces médicaments.Dans cette étude, nous avons établi que les cellules de CBNPC déficientes en ERCC1 expriment fortement la signature interféron (IFN) de type I, et que les tumeurs de CBNPC ayant une faible expression d’ERCC1 ont un infiltrat lymphocytaire renforcé. En utilisant des lignées cellulaires isogéniques et des xénogreffes dérivées de patients, nous avons montré que plusieurs PARPi, notamment l’olaparib et le rucaparib, ont des propriétés immunomodulatrices dans les modèles de CBNPC ERCC1-déficients et de cancers du sein triple-négatifs (CSTN) BRCA1-mutés. D’un point de vue mécanistique, les PARPi génèrent des fragments d’ADN cytoplasmiques ayant les caractéristiques de micronoyaux ; ceux-ci activent la voie cGAS/STING et déclenchent une réponse IFN de type I, associée à la sécrétion de la cytokine CCL5. De manière importante, ces effets sont largement diminués dans les cellules de CSTN BRCA1-révertantes et les cellules de CBNPC ré-exprimant ERCC1, ce qui suggère que les défauts de réparation de l’ADN amplifient les phénotypes immunitaires associés au traitement par PARPi. En outre, ces effets sont totalement abrogés dans les cellules de CSTN PARP1-neutralisées, ce qui confirme que les phénotypes observés dépendent d’un effet spécifique des PARPi sur leur cible.Au-delà de leur potentiel d’activation d’une immunité spécifique des cellules cancéreuses via cGAS/STING et la signalisation IFN de type I, nous avons également constaté que les PARPi potentialisent les effets inducteurs de l‘IFN de type II sur l’expression de PD-L1 dans des lignées cellulaires et cellules tumorales fraîches de patients CBNPC, surtout en présence de défauts d’ERCC1. De plus, nous avons montré que certains PARPi, utilisés à des concentrations létales, activent de manière indépendante les éléments moléculaires clés de la mort cellulaire immunogénique, dont l’exposition de la calréticuline à la surface des cellules cancéreuses, la sécrétion d’ATP et le relargage d’HMGB1 en grandes quantités dans le milieu extracellulaire.Dans l’ensemble, ces données précliniques suggèrent que les PARPi ont des propriétés immunomodulatrices intrinsèques qui participent à l’activation de réponses immunitaires anti-tumorales ; ce potentiel pourrait être exploité cliniquement en combinaison avec les ICI dans des populations adéquatement sélectionnées au plan moléculaire. / Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) selectively target cancer cells with DNA repair deficiencies such as BRCA1/2 mutations or ERCC1 defects. Clinically, several PARPi are currently approved for the treatment of BRCA-mutant or platinum-sensitive advanced ovarian and breast cancers, and ongoing clinical trials are investigating the efficacy of PARPi in platinum-sensitive Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC). While PARPi constitute potent targeted therapies for the treatment of DNA repair-deficient malignancies, an increasing number of clinical trials are also evaluating their efficacy in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) in various populations. In this context, it is of critical importance to better understand how PARPi might modulate immune responses against cancer, and to investigate the inherent immunological potential of these agents.In this study, we show that ERCC1-defective NSCLC cells exhibit an enhanced type I interferon (IFN) transcriptomic signature and that low ERCC1 expression correlates with increased lymphocytic infiltration in human NSCLC tumours. Using isogenic cell lines and patient-derived xenografts, we further demonstrate that several clinical PARPi, including olaparib and rucaparib, display cell-autonomous immunomodulatory properties in ERCC1-defective NSCLC and BRCA1-mutant triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) models. Mechanistically, PARPi generate cytoplasmic chromatin fragments with micronuclei characteristics; this activates the cGAS/STING pathway and elicits downstream type I IFN signalling and CCL5 secretion. Importantly, these effects are suppressed in BRCA1-reverted TNBC cells and ERCC1-rescued NSCLC cells, suggesting that DNA repair defects exacerbate the innate immunity-related phenotypes triggered by PARPi. Similarly, these effects are totally abrogated in PARP1-null TNBC cells, supporting the on-target effect of PARPi in mediating such phenotypes. Besides this potential to activate tumour cell-autonomous immunity through cGAS/STING and type I IFN signalling, we also observed that PARPi synergize with type II IFN to induce PD-L1 expression in NSCLC cell lines and fresh patient tumour cells, especially in the ERCC1-deficient setting. Moreover, we show that lethal concentrations of some PARPi independently activate the key damage-associated molecular patterns dictating the immunogenicity of cancer cell death, including calreticulin exposure at the tumour cell surface, ATP secretion and HMGB1 release in the extracellular compartment.Together, these preclinical data suggest that PARPi have intrinsic immunomodulatory properties that activate anti-cancer immune responses; this could be exploited clinically in combination with ICI in appropriately molecularly-selected populations.

Neutrophile Granulozyten produzieren „Neutrophil Extracellular Traps“ (NETs), ein mit antimikrobiellen Molekülen bestücktes Netzwerk aus Chromatinfasern, das während eines Zelltodprogramms namens „NETosis“ von den sterbenden Neutrophilen ausgestoßen wird. Ihre netzartige Struktur erlaubt es ihnen, eine weitere Verbreitung des Infektionserregers zu verhindern; zudem erzeugen sie eine hohe lokale Konzentration an toxischen Molekülen, die Mikroorganismen töten können. Unter normalen Bedingungen werden NETs von Nukleasen zerkleinert und anschließend von Makrophagen entfernt. Wenn dieser Aufräummechanismus gestört ist, aktivieren NETs das Immunsystem und führen zur Produktion von Autoantikörpern oder entzündungsfördernden Zytokinen. NETs werden mit einer wachsenden Liste von inflammatorischen und Autoimmunerkrankungen in Verbindung gebracht. Wie genau dabei NETs durch das Immunsystem erkannt werden, ist noch nicht bekannt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit zeige ich, dass NETs durch den zytosolischen DNA Sensor „cyclic GMP-AMP synthase“ (cGAS) detektiert werden können und dass dadurch die Expression von Typ I Interferonen (TIIFN) induziert wird. Zu Beginn demonstriere ich, dass NETs durch rekombinantes cGAS erkannt werden und dass mit isolierten NETs stimulierte Immunzellen cGAS-abhängig TIIFN produzieren. Des Weiteren zeige ich, dass Neutrophile, die NETosis begehen, in Nachbarzellen ebenfalls cGAS-anhängig TIIFN induzieren können. Abschließend konnte ich diese Ergebnisse in einem in vivo Mausmodel für systemische NET-Produktion bestätigen. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt einen Mechanismus, wie NETs durch das Immunsystem erkannt werden und dadurch sowohl zur Entstehung als auch zur Progression von Krankheiten beitragen kann. Sie ermöglicht dementsprechend die Entwicklung neuer Interventionsstrategien, welche zur Heilung oder Linderung einer Vielzahl von Erkrankungen beitragen können. / The first line of cellular defense of the immune system are neutrophils. They are the most abundant white blood cell, which exert an array of antimicrobial effector functions. Neutrophils release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a composite of chromatin and antimicrobial molecules, into the extracellular space during a form of regulated cell death called NETosis. Their net-like structure prevent further dissemination of the invader and establishes a high local concentration of toxic molecules that mediate pathogen killing. NETs provide a platform for undesired immune activation and contribute to the production of autoantibodies and pro-inflammatory cytokines. NETs are implicated in a growing list of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, but the exact mechanism how NETs are recognized by the immune system is not fully understood. In this study, I demonstrate that the cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) senses NETs and induces the production of type I interferons (TIIFN). I first showed that NETs are recognized by recombinant cGAS and that cells treated with isolated NETs produce TIIFN in a cGAS dependent mechanism. Secondly, I demonstrate that neutrophils undergoing NETosis are taken up by neighboring immune cells and induce cGAS-dependent TIIFN expression. Lastly, I confirmed our in vitro results in a mouse model of systemic NET induction. Wildtype mice injected with Concanavalin A significantly upregulate the expression of interferon stimulated genes, while cGAS-/- mice and Cybb-/- mice, which are incapable of producing NETs, fail to induce this response.

TREX2, a 3’-5’ exonuclease, plays a pivotal role in cleaving nucleoside monophosphates at the 3’ terminus of ssDNA. Despite previous insights into its biochemical functions—homodimerisation, DNA binding, and enzymatic activity—the precise biological significance of TREX2 remains elusive. The broad objective of this thesis was to elucidate the physiological function of the 3’-5’ DNA exonuclease TREX2, aiming to deepen our understanding of the cellular mechanisms governed by TREX2. Considering the implications of DNA exonuclease dysregulation in autoimmune disorders, we aimed to explore the potential implications of TREX2 deficiency on immune function. Due to the lack of anti-TREX2 antibodies recognising endogenous TREX2, we worked on overexpression systems. During interphase, GFP-tagged TREX2 predominantly localised to the cytoplasm; however, throughout all stages of mitosis, it accumulated within the nucleus, showing significant colocalisation with chromatin. This suggests a multifaceted role for TREX2 in maintaining chromatin integrity during cell division. Utilising the CRISPR-Cas9 knockout technique, we targeted the TREX2 gene in wildtype HaCaT cells. Our unexpected findings revealed that TREX2 deficiency led to reduced basal type I IFN activity, contrary to the anticipated effect observed with TREX1 deficiency. This suggests that TREX2 plays a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis of the type I IFN pathway. Moreover, upon stimulation with cGAS- specific agonists, TREX2 knockout HaCaT cells exhibited diminished responsiveness, supporting a positive regulatory function of TREX2 in the cGAS-sensing pathway. Live imaging further demonstrated colocalisation of TREX2 and cGAS with mitotic chromatin, underscoring their collaborative role in cellular dynamics. In conclusion, TREX2 emerges as a crucial player in regulating the type I IFN pathway, influencing immune homeostasis in association with cGAS. These findings pave the way for comprehending the intricate interplay of TREX2 in cellular processes and its implications for immune modulation.

Malarial infection in naïve individuals induces a robust innate immune response, but our understanding of the mechanisms by which the innate immune system recognizes malaria and regulates its response remain incomplete. Our group previously showed that stimulation of macrophages with Plasmodium falciparum genomic DNA (gDNA) and AT-rich oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) derived from this gDNA induces the production of type I interferons (IFN-I) through a STING/TBK1/IRF3-dependent pathway; however, the identity of the upstream cytosolic DNA receptor remained elusive. Here, we demonstrate that this IFN-I response is dependent on cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). cGAS produced the cyclic dinucleotide 2’3’-cGAMP in response to P. falciparum gDNA and AT-rich ODNs, inducing IRF3 phosphorylation and IFNB transcription. In the recently described model of innate immune memory, an initial stimulus primes the innate immune system to either hyperrespond (termed “training”) or hyporespond (“tolerance”) to subsequent immune challenge. Previous work in mice and humans demonstrated that infection with malaria can both serve as a priming stimulus and promote tolerance to subsequent infection. In this study, we demonstrate that initial stimulation with P. falciparum-infected red blood cells (iRBCs) or the malaria crystal hemozoin (Hz) induced human adherent peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to hyperrespond to subsequent Toll-like receptor (TLR) challenge. This hyperresponsiveness correlated with increased H3K4me3 at important immunometabolic promoters, and these epigenetic modifications were also seen in monocytes from Kenyan children naturally infected with malaria. However, the use of epigenetic and metabolic inhibitors indicated that malaria-induced trained immunity may occur via previously unrecognized mechanism(s).

Cytosolic DNA sensing plays a key role in autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. STING is a cytosolic adaptor protein which upon activation leads to induction of type I interferons and inflammatory cytokines. Recently, gain-of-function mutations in STING have been identified in patients with an autoinflammatory disease called STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). We compared two independent SAVI mutant mouse models and revealed a hierarchy of immune abnormalities which were dependent on SAVI mutation in lymphocytes. We also showed that bone marrow from the V154M mutant mice transfers disease to the wild-type host, whereas the N153S does not, indicating mutation-specific disease outcomes. Collectively, these mutant mice recapitulate disease features seen in SAVI patients and highlight mutation-specific functions of STING. Other autoimmune mouse models such as DNAseII and DNAseIII-deficient mice, that fail to degrade DNA result in activation of the cGAS STING pathway. Deficiency of this pathway in these mouse models ameliorates lethality. By contrast, we previously reported that STING potently suppresses inflammation in a pristane-induced model of autoimmunity. In this model, we show that both cGAS- and STING-deficient mice exhibit exacerbated disease phenotypes compared to controls. We report that STING constrained TLR activation, and thereby limited autoimmune manifestations. Consistent with this premise, cGAS or STING deficient mice that lack a common TLR chaperone UNC93b develop less severe systemic autoimmunity than cGAS or STING deficient mice that are UNC93b sufficient. Overall, this study demonstrates that STING activation constrains systemic autoimmune disease and has important implications for cGAS STING-directed therapies.