Aerosols affect the global radiation budget which plays an important role in determining the state of the Earth's climate. The heterogeneous distribution of aerosols and the variety in their properties results in high uncertainty in the understanding of aerosols. Aerosols affect the radiation by scattering and absorption (direct effect) or by modifying the cloud properties which in turn affects the radiation (indirect effect). The current work focuses only on the direct radiative effect of aerosols. The change in the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflected flux due to the perturbation of aerosols and their properties is called direct aerosol radiative forcing (ARFTOA). Estimation of ARFTOA using aerosol properties is done by solving the radiative transfer equation using a radiative transfer model. However, before using the radiative transfer model, it has to be validated with observations for consistency. This is done to check if the model is able to replicate values close to actual observations. The current work uses the Santa Barbara DISORT Atmospheric Radiative Transfer (SBDART) model. The output radiative fluxes from SBDART are validated by comparing with the Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) satellite data. Under clear-skies SBDART agreed with observed fluxes at TOA well within the error limits of satellite observations. In the shortwave solar spectrum (0.25-4 µm) radiation is affected by change in various aerosol properties and also by water vapour and other gas molecules. To study the effect of each of these molecules separately on the aerosol forcing at TOA, SBDART is used. ARFTOA is found to depend on the aerosol loading (aerosol optical depth – AOD), aerosol type (SSA) and the angular distribution of scattered radiation (asymmetry parameter). The role of water vapour relative to the aerosol layer height was also investigated and for different aerosol types and aerosol layer heights, it was found that water vapour can induce a change of ~4 Wm-2 in TOA flux. The relative importance of aerosol scattering versus absorption is evaluated through a parameter called single scattering albedo (SSA) which can be estimated from satellites. SSA defined as the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency, depends on the aerosol composition and wavelength. Aerosols with SSA close to 1 (sea-salt, sulphates) scatter the radiation and cool the atmosphere. Aerosols with SSA < 0.9 (black carbon, dust) absorb radiation and warm the atmosphere. Over high reflective surfaces a small change in SSA can change forcing from negative (cooling) to positive (warming). This makes SSA one of the most important and uncertain aerosol parameters. Currently, the SSA retrievals from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) are highly sensitive to sub-pixel cloud contamination and change in aerosol height. Using the sensitivity of OMI to aerosol absorption and the superior cloud masking technique and accurate AOD retrieval of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), an algorithm to retrieve SSA (OMI-MODIS) was developed. The algorithm was performed over global oceans (60S-60N) from 2008-2012. The difference in SSA estimated by OMI-MODIS and that of OMI depended on the aerosol type and aerosol layer height. Aerosol layer height plays an important role in the UV spectrum due to the dominance of Rayleigh scattering. This was verified using SBDART which otherwise would not have been possible using just satellite observations. Both the algorithms were validated with cruise measurements over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. It was seen that when absorbing aerosols (low SSA values) were present closer to the surface, OMI overestimated the value of SSA. On the other hand OMI-MODIS algorithm, which made no assumption on the aerosol type or height, was better constrained than OMI and hence was closer to the cruise measurement The presence of clouds results in a more complex interaction between aerosols and radiation. Aerosols present above clouds are responsible to most of the direct radiative effect in cloudy regions. The ARFTOA depends not only on the aerosol properties but also on the relative position of aerosols with clouds. When absorbing aerosols are present above clouds, the ARFTOA is highly influenced by the albedo of the underlying surface. Recent studies, over regions influenced by biomass burning aerosol, have shown that it is possible to define a ‘critical cloud fraction’ (CCF) at which the aerosol direct radiative forcing switch from a cooling to a warming effect. Similar analysis was done over BoB (6.5-21.5N; 82.5-97.5E) for the years 2008-2011. Aerosol properties were taken from satellite observations. Satellites cannot provide for aerosols present at different heights and hence SBDART was used to calculate the forcing due to aerosols present only above clouds. Unlike previous studies which reported a single value of CCF, over BoB it was found that CCF varied from 0.28 to 0.13 from post-monsoon to winter as a result of shift from less absorbing to moderately absorbing aerosol. This implies that in winter, the absorbing aerosols present above clouds cause warming of the atmosphere even at low cloud fractions leading to lower CCF. The use of multiple satellites in improving the retrieval of SSA has been presented in this thesis. The effect of aerosols present above clouds on the radiative forcing at TOA is shown to be different between Bay of Bengal and Atlantic Ocean. This was due to the change in SSA of aerosols during different seasons. The effect of aerosol height, aerosol type and water vapour on the TOA flux estimation is also studied using a radiative transfer model.

空載光達系統於建置國土測繪基本資料扮演關鍵角色，依國土測繪法，為確保測繪成果品質，應依測量計畫目的及作業精度需求辦理儀器校正。國土測繪中心已於102年度建置航遙測感應器系統校正作業中，提出矩形建物之平屋頂面做為空載光達系統校正之可行性，而其所稱之校正，是以點雲精度評估待校件空載光達系統所得最終成果品質，並不對儀器做任何參數改正，但其校正成果可能因不同人員操作而有差異，因此本研究嘗試建立一套空載光達點雲半自動化精度評估程序，此外探討以山形屋脊線執行點雲精度評估之可行性。 由於光達點雲為離散的三維資訊，不論是以山形屋脊線或矩形建物之平屋頂面作為標物執行點雲精度評估，均須先萃取屋頂面上之點，為避免萃取成果受雜訊影響，本研究引入粗差偵測理論，發展最小一乘法結合李德仁以後驗變方估計原理導出的選擇權迭代法(李德仁法)將非屋頂點視為粗差排除。研究中分別對矩形建物之平屋頂面及山形屋脊線進行模擬及真實資料實驗，其中山形屋脊線作為點雲精度評估之可行性實驗中發現不適合用於評估點雲精度，因此後續實驗僅以萃取矩形建物之平屋頂面點雲過程探討粗差比率對半自動化點雲精度評估程序之影響。模擬實驗成果顯示最小一乘法有助於提升李德仁法偵測粗差數量5%至10%；真實資料實驗，以含有牆面點雲的狀況為例，則有助提升5%的偵測粗差數量。本研究由逐步測試結果提出能夠適用於真實狀況的半自動化之點雲精度評估程序，即使由不同人員操作，仍能獲得一致的成果，顯示本研究半自動化精度評估程序之可信度。 / The airborne LiDAR system plays a crucial role in building land surveying data. Based on the Land Surveying and Mapping Act, to ensure the quality of surveying, instrument calibration is required. The approach proposed by National Land Surveying and Mapping Center (NLSC) in 2013 was confirmed the feasibility for airborne LiDAR system calibration using rectangular horizontal roof plane. The calibration mean to assess the final quality of airborne LiDAR system based on the assessment of the accuracy of the point cloud, and do not adjust the instrument. But the results may vary according to different operators. This study attempts to establish a semi-automatic procedure for the accuracy assessment of point clouds from airborne LiDAR system. In addition, the gable roof ridge lines is discussed for its feasibility for the accuracy assessment of point cloud. No matter that calibration is performed using rectangular horizontal roof plane or gable roof ridge line, point clouds located on roof planes need to be extracted at first. Therefore, Least Absolute Deviation (LAD) combined with the Iteration using Selected Weights (Deren Li method) is developed to exclude the non-roof points which regarded as gross errors and eliminate their influences. The simulated test and actual data test found that gable roof ridge lines are not suitable for accuracy assessment. As for the simulated test using horizontal roof planes, LAD combined with Deren Li method prompts the rate of gross error detection about 5% to 10% than that only by Deren Li method. In actual test, data contains wall points, LAD combined with Deren Li method can prompt about 5%. Meanwhile, a semi-automatic procedure for real operations is proposed by the step-by-step test. Even different operators employ this semi-automatic procedure, consistent results will be obtained and the reliability can achieve.

Cette thèse présente trois contributions en lien avec l'apprentissage et la détection de dissimilarité statistique multivariée, problématique d'importance primordiale pour de nombreuses méthodes d'apprentissage utilisées dans un nombre croissant de domaines. La première contribution introduit la notion de taille d'effet multivariée non-paramétrique, éclairant la nature de la dissimilarité détectée entre deux jeux de données, en deux étapes. La première consiste en une décomposition d'une mesure de dissimilarité (divergence de Jensen-Shannon) visant à la localiser dans l'espace ambiant, tandis que la seconde génère un résultat facilement interprétable en termes de grappes de points de forte discrépance et en proximité spatiale. La seconde contribution présente le premier test non-paramétrique d'homogénéité séquentiel, traitant les données issues de deux jeux une à une--au lieu de considérer ceux-ci- in extenso. Le test peut ainsi être arrêté dès qu'une évidence suffisamment forte est observée, offrant une flexibilité accrue tout en garantissant un contrôle del'erreur de type I. Sous certaines conditions, nous établissons aussi que le test a asymptotiquement une probabilité d'erreur de type II tendant vers zéro. La troisième contribution consiste en un test de détection de changement séquentiel basé sur deux fenêtres glissantes sur lesquelles un test d'homogénéité est effectué, avec des garanties sur l'erreur de type I. Notre test a une empreinte mémoire contrôlée et, contrairement à des méthodes de l'état de l'art qui ont aussi un contrôle sur l'erreur de type I, a une complexité en temps constante par observation, le rendant adapté aux flux de données. / In this thesis, we study problems related to learning and detecting multivariate statistical dissimilarity, which are of paramount importance for many statistical learning methods nowadays used in an increasingly number of fields. This thesis makes three contributions related to these problems. The first contribution introduces a notion of multivariate nonparametric effect size shedding light on the nature of the dissimilarity detected between two datasets. Our two step method first decomposes a dissimilarity measure (Jensen-Shannon divergence) aiming at localizing the dissimilarity in the data embedding space, and then proceeds by aggregating points of high discrepancy and in spatial proximity into clusters. The second contribution presents the first sequential nonparametric two-sample test. That is, instead of being given two sets of observations of fixed size, observations can be treated one at a time and, when strongly enough evidence has been found, the test can be stopped, yielding a more flexible procedure while keeping guaranteed type I error control. Additionally, under certain conditions, when the number of observations tends to infinity, the test has a vanishing probability of type II error. The third contribution consists in a sequential change detection test based on two sliding windows on which a two-sample test is performed, with type I error guarantees. Our test has controlled memory footprint and, as opposed to state-of-the-art methods that also provide type I error control, has constant time complexity per observation, which makes our test suitable for streaming data.

Evapotranspiration is a nexus for planetary energy and carbon cycles, as yet poorly constrained. Here I use stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to partition flux of water due to plant transpiration from the direct evaporative flux from soils, water bodies and plant. The study areas, Langat and Kelantan watersheds represent examples of domains dominated by the respective Southwest and Northeast monsoons on the two sides of the main orographic barrier (Titiwangsa mountain range). Mean annual rainfall for the Langat watershed, obtained from 30 years of hydrological data, is 2145 ± 237 mm. Tentatively, 48% of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere via transpiration (T), with 33% partitioned into discharge (Q), 8% into interception (In), and 11% into evaporation (Ed). In the Kelantan watershed, the mean annual rainfall, also based on the 30 year hydrological data, is 2383 ± 120 mm. Similar to Langat, the T accounts for 43% of precipitation (P), 45% is discharged into South China Sea (Q), 12% partitioned into interception (In) and tentatively 0% for evaporation (Ed). Ed for the Langat watershed represents only a small proportion in terms of volumetric significance, up to almost ~11% with strong effect on the isotopic fingerprints of waters associated with the summer Southwest Monsoon (SWM). Note, however, that insignificant Ed for the Kelantan watershed may be an artefact of rain and river water sampling at only coastal downstream portion of the watershed. High humidity (80%) also was recorded for the Malaysian Peninsula watershed. T appropriates about half of all solar energy absorbed by the continents, here ~1000*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1 similar to other tropical regions at 900-1200*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1. The associated carbon fluxes are ~ 1300 g C m-2yr-1, independent of P. Vegetation responses to solar irradiance, via T and photosynthesis reflects the importance of stomatal regulation of the water and carbon fluxes. In order to maintain high transpiration in the tropical region, “constant” water supply is required for continuous pumping of water that delivers nutrients to the plant, suggesting that water and carbon cycle are co-driven by the energy of the sun. The existence of the water conveyor belt may be precondition for nutrient delivery, hence operation of the carbon cycle. Potentially, this may change our perspective on the role that biology plays in the water cycle. In such perspective, the global water cycle is the medium that redistributes the incoming solar energy across the planet, and the anatomical structures of plants then help to optimize the loop of energy transfer via evaporation and precipitation in the hydrologic cycle. The main features of aquatic geochemistry of the Langat and Kelantan rivers inferred from the Principal Component Analysis are controlled by three components that explain 80% and 82% of total variances. These components are reflecting of the geogenic factor with superimposed pollution, the latter particularly pronounced in urbanized sections of the Langat river and dominant in downstream of the Kelantan river. There is no correlation between seasonal variations in major ion chemistry and environmental variables such as precipitation, discharge, temperature or solar activity.

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine neuartige Lidartechnik in ein leistungsstarkes Lidar-System implementiert. Mit Hilfe des realisierten Aufbaus wurden Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen in Flüssigwasserwolken über Leipzig untersucht. Die angewandte Messmethode beruht auf der Detektion von Licht, das an Wolkentröpfchen mehrfach in Vorwärtsrichtung gestreut und an Stickstoffmolekülen inelastisch zurückgestreut wurde. Dabei werden zwei Gesichtsfelder unterschiedlicher Größe verwendet. Ein Vorwärtsiterations-Algorithmus nutzt die gewonnenen Informationen zur Ermittlung von Profilen wolkenmikrophysikalischer Eigenschaften. Es können der Extinktionskoeffizient, der effektive Tröpfchenradius, der Flüssigwassergehalt sowie die Tröpfchenanzahlkonzentration bestimmt werden. Weiterhin wird die exakte Erfassung der Wolkenunterkantenhöhe durchdie eingesetzte Messtechnik ermöglicht. Darüber hinaus ist die Bestimmung von Aerosoleigenschaften mit dem eingesetzten Lidargerät möglich. Die Qualität des realisierten Messaufbaus wurde geprüft und eine Fehleranalyse durchgeführt. Unter anderem wurde der aus einer Wolkenmessung bestimmte Flüssigwassergehalt mit einem Mikrowellen-Radiometer bestätigt. Anhand von Fallbeispielen konnte das Potential dieser Messtechnik demonstriert werden. Die Bedeutung von Profilinformationen von Wolkeneigenschaften für die Untersuchung von Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen wurde gezeigt. Weiterhin wurde mit Hilfe eines Doppler-Windlidars der Einfluss der Vertikalwindgeschwindigkeit auf Wolkeneigenschaften und damit Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen verdeutlicht. Neunundzwanzig Wolkenmessungen wurden für eine statistische Auswertung bezüglich Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen genutzt. Dabei konnte erstmalig die Abhängigkeit von Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen von der Wolkeneindringtiefe untersucht werden. Es wurde festgestellt, dass diese auf die untersten 70m von Wolken beschränkt sind. Weiterhin wurden deutlich stärkere Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen in Wolkengebieten festgestellt, die von Aufwinden dominiert werden. Für der Quantifizierung der Stärke von Aerosol-Wolken-Wechselwirkungen wurden ACIN-Werte genutzt, welche den Zusammenhang zwischen der Tröpfchenanzahlkonzentration und dem Aerosol-Extinktionskoeffizienten beschreiben. Dabei wurde zwischen der Untersuchung der entsprechenden mikrophysikalischen Prozesse und deren Bedeutung für die Wolkenalbedo und damit dem Strahlungsantrieb der Wolken unterschieden. Für die erstgenannte Zielstellung wurde ein ACIN-Wert von 0.80 +/- 0.40 ermittelt, für Letztere 0.13 +/- 0.07.

This thesis is devoted to the experimental quantitative characterization of the shape and orientation distribution of ice particles in clouds. The characterization is based on measured and modeled elevation dependencies of the polarimetric parameters differential reflectivity and correlation coefficient. The polarimetric data is obtained using a newly developed 35-GHz cloud radar MIRA-35 with hybrid polarimetric configuration and scanning capabilities. The full procedure chain of the technical implementation and the realization of the setup of the hybrid-mode cloud radar for the shape determination are presented. This includes the description of phase adjustments in the transmitting paths, the introduction of the general data processing scheme, correction of the data for the differences of amplifications and electrical path lengths in the transmitting and receiving channels, the rotation of the polarization basis by 45°, the correction of antenna effects on polarimetric measurements, the determination of spectral polarimetric variables, and the formulation of a scheme to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Modeling of the polarimetric variables is based on existing backscattering models assuming the spheroidal representation of cloud scatterers. The parameters retrieved from the model are polarizability ratio and degree of orientation, which can be assigned to certain particle orientations and shapes. In the thesis the first quantitative estimations of ice particle shape at the top of liquid-topped clouds are presented. Analyzed ice particles were formed in the presence of supercooled water and in the temperature range from -20 °C to -3 °C. The estimation is based on polarizability ratios of ice particles measured by the MIRA-35 with hybrid polarimetric configuration, manufactured by METEK GmbH. For the study, 22 cases observed during the ACCEPT (Analysis of the Composition of Clouds with Extended Polarization Techniques) field campaign were used. Polarizability ratios retrieved for cloud layers with cloud-top temperatures of about -5, -8, -15, and -20 °C were 1.6, 0.9, 0.6, and 0.9, respectively. Such values correspond to prolate, quasi-isotropic, oblate, and quasi-isotropic particles, respectively. Data from a free-fall chamber were used for the comparison. A good agreement of detected shapes with well-known shape{temperature dependencies observed in laboratories was found.:1 Introduction 2 Formation and development of ice particles: Laboratory studies and remote observations 2.1 Heterogeneous ice formation in the atmosphere 2.2 Laboratory investigations of ice crystal development 2.3 Polarimetric radar observations of ice microphysics 2.3.1 Polarimetry in weather radar networks 2.3.2 Polarimetry in cloud radars 2.3.3 Polarization coupling 2.4 Aims and scientific questions 3 Effects of antenna patterns on cloud radar polarimetric measurements 3.1 Measurements of complex antenna patterns 3.1.1 Problem definition 3.1.2 Measurement description 3.1.3 Results of antenna pattern measurements 3.2 Correction of LDR measurements 3.3 Discrimination between insects and clouds 4 Cloud radar MIRA-35 with hybrid mode 4.1 Implementation and phase adjustment 4.2 Processing of the coherency matrix 4.3 Correction of the coherency matrix for differences of channels 4.4 The coherency matrix in the slanted basis 4.5 Correction for the antenna coupling 4.6 Spectral polarimetric variables 4.7 Sensitivity issue 5 Shape and orientation retrieval 5.1 Backscattering model 5.2 Retrieval technique 5.3 Case study 6 Shape-temperature relationship of pristine ice crystals 6.1 Instrumentation and data set 6.2 Examples of the shape retrieval 6.2.1 Case 1: 12 October 2014, 15:00-16:00 UTC 6.2.2 Case 2: 18 October 2014, 01:00-02:00 UTC 6.2.3 Case 3: 20 October 2014, 18:00-19:00 UTC 6.2.4 Case 4: 10 November 2014, 02:00-03:00 UTC 6.2.5 Case 5: 7 November 2014, 20:00-21:00 UTC 6.3 Comparison of shape with laboratory studies 6.4 Orientation of pristine ice crystals 7 Summary and outlook Bibliography List of Abbreviations List of Symbols

L’objectif principal de cette thèse est de caractériser l’atmosphère de Jupiters chaudes par spectroscopie de transmission à haute résolution, dans l’infrarouge proche, avec l’instrument SPIRou. L’historique de formation, d’évolution et de migration des planètes est empreint dans leur composition chimique, et de retrouver cette composition permet d’en élucider le mystère. La spectroscopie de transit et d’émission a prouvé être fortement efficace à cette tâche, autant pour la détermination de la composition que pour la détermination d’autres caractéristiques atmosphériques comme le profil de température et la dynamique, accessibles à haute résolution. Les Jupiter Chaudes, planètes géantes gazeuses qui orbitent très près de leur étoile, offrent des conditions d’observations très favorables pour ce type d’étude. Encore beaucoup d’éléments nous échappent quant aux processus physiques, chimiques et dynamiques qui gouvernent l’atmosphère de ces objets astronomiques. Des études détaillées de ceux-ci, telles que celles présentées dans cette thèse, sont nécessaires pour mieux comprendre ces mécanismes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons fait l’étude de deux transits de HD 189733 b, une des exoplanètes les plus étudiées. Cela nous a permis de valider nos méthodes d’analyse avec des données provenant du spectropolarimètre infrarouge à haute résolution SPIRou, installé au télescope Canada-France-Hawaii, représentant d’ailleurs la première caractérisation d’une atmosphère en spectroscopie de transit pour le SPIRou Legacy Survey. Nous avons confirmé la présence d’un signal d’eau à un niveau de signification de plus de 5σ, basé sur les résultats de test-t. Nous présentons la première analyse de spectroscopie de transit haute résolution faite par méthode de récupération, basée sur l’inférence bayésienne et appliquée à une grille de modèles SCARLET interpolée. Celle-ci a permis d’inférer une abondance de log_10[H2O] ≃ −4.4. Les résultats obtenus sont cohérents avec la littérature et indiquent que l’atmosphère de HD 189733 b est relativement claire (sans nuages) et possède un C/O super-solaire (correspondant à une formation au-delà de la ligne de glace de l’eau). Un fort décalage vers le bleu de l’absorption par l’eau a été observé, indiquant la présence de forts vents allant du côté jour vers le côté nuit ou un signal dominé par le côté soir du terminateur (limbe arrière), ou une combinaison des deux. Dans un second temps, nous présentons la première analyse à haute résolution dans l’infrarouge proche de trois transits de la très peu dense sous-Saturne WASP-127 b. Une étude récente à basse résolution a montré un spectre de transmission riche et une abondance super-solaire de CO2 dans son atmosphère. La contribution de CO et de CO2 n’a cependant pu être démêlée étant donné la couverture spectrale et la résolution limitée des données HST et de Spitzer utilisées, menant à des scénarios équiprobables de faible et fort C/O. La couverture de la bande de CO à 2.3 μm par SPIRou a permis de faire cette différenciation, et nos résultats ont exclu la présence de CO en abondance supérieure à log_10[CO] = −4.3, impliquant que le signal détecté à 4.5μm dans les données Spitzer provient majoritairement du CO2. De plus, un calcul de test-t sur les données SPIRou a confirmé la détection de H2O à un niveau ajusté de 4.9σ, mais également une détection potentielle de OH, à 2.4σ. Cette présence extrêmement inattendue de OH pourrait potentiellement être expliquée si la température du côté jour est assez grande, aidée par l’irradiation amplifiée de l’étoile qui quitte la séquence principale, ou encore par du mélange vertical. Nous présentons également la première méthode de récupération complète appliquée à la spectroscopie de transit à haute résolution, en utilisant la suite de modèles petitRADTRANS, et sur trois ensembles de données différents : les données SPIRou, les données HST et Spitzer de l’étude initiale, et les deux ensembles de données combinés. Une comparaison des différents résultats obtenus confirme que l’analyse conjointe permet d’avoir de meilleures contraintes sur les paramètres atmosphériques. Alors que l’étude initiale favorisait un fort C/O, nos résultats pointent vers un C/O très sous-solaire, produit par un C/H sous-solaire et un O/H plutôt stellaire. Les scénarios de formation qui supportent une telle composition sont ceux au-delà des lignes de glace de H2O et de CO2 (∼ 10ua), avec une accrétion supplémentaire de matériel riche en O via la migration et le croisement des lignes de glaces. L’accrétion du matériel est soit dominée par le gaz et tardive (après 5 à 7 millions d’années), ou encore, mixte (de gaz et de glaces) et plus précoce, avec un mélange cœur-enveloppe substantiel. Bien qu’il en reste beaucoup à faire, ces travaux de recherche ont démontré que la spectroscopie de transit à haute résolution dans l’infrarouge proche est utile pour explorer les conditions atmosphériques des Jupiter et sous-Saturne chaudes, et plus spécifiquement, avec l’instrument SPIRou. La combinaison de données à faible et à haute résolution s’avère un outil très puissant pour l’étude des atmosphères, et le sera encore plus avec les capacités révolutionnaires de JWST. / The main objective of this thesis is to characterize the atmosphere of hot Jupiters with high resolution transmission spectroscopy in the near-infrared with the SPIRou instrument. The formation, evolution and migration history of exoplanets is imprinted in their chemical composition, and finding this composition makes it possible to trace back this history. Transit and emission spectroscopy have proven to be highly effective for this task, in the determination of the composition, but also of other atmospheric characteristics such as the temperature profile and the dynamics, accessible at high resolution. Hot Jupiters -- gas giant planets orbiting very close to their star -- offer highly favourable observation conditions for this type of study. Many pieces of the puzzle are still missing regarding the physical, chemical and dynamical processes that govern the atmospheres of these astronomical objects, and detailed studies, such as the ones presented in this thesis, are necessary to better understand those mechanisms. First, we present the results of our analysis of two HD189733b transits, one of the most studied exoplanets to date. This study allowed to validate our analysis method with SPIRou data, a high-resolution near-infrared spectro-polarimeter installed at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. It also represents the first characterization of an atmosphere with transit spectroscopy as part of the SPIRou Legacy Survey. Our results confirmed the H2O detection in the planet's atmosphere at a 5 sigma level, based on a $t$-test. We present the first analysis of a Bayesian retrieval framework applied to high-resolution transmission spectroscopy, using a grid of SCARLET models. We constrained the H2O abundance to log_10[H2O] ~ -4.4$. The results are consistent with the literature and agree on the atmosphere of HD189733b being relatively clear (without clouds) and having a super-solar C/O (corresponding to a formation beyond the H2O ice line). A strong blue shift of the water absorption signal was observed, indicative of strong day-to-night winds or a signal dominated by the terminator's evening side (trailing limb), or a combination of both. Second, we present the first high-resolution analysis in the near-infrared of three transits of the super low-density sub-Saturn WASP-127b. A recent low-resolution study showed a rich transmission spectrum and super-solar abundance of CO2 in its atmosphere. However, the contribution of CO and CO2 could not be disentangled given the limited spectral coverage and resolution of the HST and Spitzer data, leading to equiprobable low and high C/O scenarios. The coverage of the CO band at 2.3um by SPIRou made it possible to differentiate between the two cases, and our results excluded CO abundances greater than 10^(-4.3), implying that the signal at 4.5um seen in the Spitzer data mostly comes from CO2. Moreover, a t-test analysis on the SPIRou data confirmed the detection of H2O at an adjusted level of 4.9 sigma, but also a tentative detection of OH, at 2.4 sigma. The presence of OH, although extremely unexpected, could potentially be explained from a high enough dayside temperature, increased by the amplified irradiation of the star leaving the main sequence, or from vertical mixing. We also present the first full-retrieval framework applied to transmission spectroscopy at high resolution, using the petitRADTRANS model suite on three different datasets: on the SPIRou data, on the HST and Spitzer data from the original study, and on both datasets combined. A comparison of the different results obtained confirms that the joint analysis provides better constraints on the atmospheric parameters. While the initial study favored a high C/O, our results point toward a highly subsolar C/O, produced by a sub-stellar C/H and a roughly stellar O/H. Formation scenarios that support such a composition are those beyond the H2O and CO2 ice lines (~ 10ua), with further accretion of O-rich material via migration and ice lines crossing. The primordial/bulk accretion was either gas-dominated and late (after 5-7 Myr), or earlier and mixed (with gas and ice), with substantial core-enveloppe mixing. Although much remains to be done, this research work has demonstrated that high-resolution near-infrared transit spectroscopy is useful for exploring the atmospheric conditions of hot Jupiters and sub-Saturns, and more specifically, with the SPIRou instrument. The combination of low and high resolution data has shown to be a very powerful tool for such studies, and will be even more so with the revolutionary capabilities of JWST.

Fotogrammetri är en viktig metod för att skapa 3D-representationer av terräng och strukturer, men utmaningar kvarstår när det gäller noggrannheten på grund av faktorer som bildkvalitet, kamerakalibrering och positionsdata. Användningen av drönare för byggnadsdetaljmätning möjliggör snabb och kostnadseffektiv datainsamling, men noggrannheten kan påverkas av bildkvalitet och skuggning. Avhandlingen syftar till att jämföra noggrannheten och kvaliteten hos punktmoln genererade med två olika tekniker: terrester laserskanning (TLS) och struktur-från-rörelse (SfM) fotogrammetri med drönare. För att testa båda metodernas osäkerhet och noggrannhet vid detaljmätning av bostäder. Genom att utföra mätningar på en villa har data samlats in med både TLS och drönare utrustade med 48 MP kamera, samt georeferering med markstöd (GCP). SfM-punktmoln bearbetades med Agisoft Metashape. Jämförelser gjordes mellan SfM- och TLS-punktmoln avseende täckning, lägesskillnad och lägesosäkerhet. Genom att följa riktlinjer från HMK - Terrester Laserskanning och tillämpa HMK Standardnivå 3 säkerställs hög noggrannhet i mätningarna. Kontroll av lägesosäkerhet av båda punktmolnen resulterade i en lägesosäkerhet som understeg toleranser satta enligt HMK - Terrester laserskanner Standardnivå 3.  Kontrollen av lägesosäkerheten visade att kvadratiska medelfelet(RMSE) i plan och höjd var 0.011m respektive 0.007m för TLS-punktmolnet, och 0.02m respektive 0.015m för drönar-SfM-punktmolnet, vilket låg under toleransen enligt HMK- Terrester Detaljmätning 2021. Resultaten tyder på att Structure-from-Motion fotogrammetri med drönare kan generera punktmoln med god detaljrikedom, inte lika noggrann som med terrester laserskanner på sin lägsta inställning. TLS uppvisade mindre osäkerhet enligt kontrollen av lägesosäkerhet, ungefär en halvering av RMSE i både plan och höjd. I studien framgick det att TLS presterar sämre vid svåråtkomliga ytor med skymd sikt och ogynnsamma infallsvinklar, där effekten blir en lägre punkttäthet för punktmolnet. Vid gynnsamma förhållanden erbjuder TLS en högre noggrannhet och detaljnivå jämfört med SfM punktmoln. Enligt M3C2 punktmoln analys, med TLS punktmolnet som referens, antydde det att SfM punktmolnet genererade största felen vid takfot samt vid buskage. De större felen vid takfot tyder på att SfM presterar sämre gällande detaljnivå och fel vid buskageområdet varierar inte från det som dokumenterats om fotogrammetriska fel vid mappning av vegetation. SfM kan utföra en effektiv datainsamling för större samt svåråtkomliga ytor men kräver lång bearbetningstid med diverse hjälpmedel för att uppnå hög noggrannhet. TLS kräver istället en lång datainsamlingsprocess men kan generera ett detaljerat och noggrant punktmoln direkt utan långa bearbetningsprocesser. Val av metod styrs därmed baserat på specifika projektkrav. Långsiktiga implikationer inkluderar förbättrad effektivitet och säkerhet inom bygg- och anläggningsprojekt, samt potentialen för kostnadsbesparingar och mer detaljerade inspektioner. / Photogrammetry is a crucial method for creating 3D representations of terrain and structures, yet challenges remain regarding accuracy due to factors such as image quality, camera calibration, and positional data. The use of drones for building detail measurements enables rapid and cost-effective data collection, but accuracy can be affected by image quality and shading. This thesis aims to compare the accuracy and quality of point clouds generated using two different techniques: terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry with drones. The objective is to test the uncertainty and accuracy of both methods in residential surveying. Data collection was performed on a villa using both TLS and a drone equipped with a 48 MP camera, along with georeferencing with ground control points (GCP). SfM point clouds were processed with Agisoft Metashape. Comparisons were made between SfM and TLS point clouds in terms of coverage, positional difference, and positional uncertainty. By following guidelines from HMK - Terrester laserskanning 2021 and applying HMK Standard Level 3, high measurement accuracy was ensured. Positional uncertainty checks of both point clouds resulted in positional uncertainty within tolerances set by HMK - Terrestrial Laser Scanning Standard Level 3. The positional uncertainty, with a sample of 41 points showed that the root mean square error (RMSE) in plane and height was 0.011m and 0.007m respectively for the TLS point cloud, and 0.02m and 0.015m for the drone-SfM point cloud, both within the tolerance according to HMK - Terrestrial Detail Measurement 2021. The results suggest that Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry with drones can generate point clouds with good detail, although not as accurate as terrestrial laser scanning at its lowest setting. TLS showed less uncertainty according to the positional uncertainty check, with approximately half the RMSE in both plan and height. The study found that TLS performs worse on difficult-to-access surfaces with obstructed views and unfavorable angles, resulting in lower point cloud density. Under favorable conditions, TLS offers higher accuracy and detail compared to SfM point clouds. According to M3C2 point cloud analysis, using the TLS point cloud as a reference, SfM point clouds showed the largest errors at eaves and shrubbery. The larger errors at eaves indicate that SfM performs worse in terms of detail level, and errors in the shrubbery area are consistent with documented photogrammetric errors in vegetation mapping. SfM can effectively collect data for larger and difficult-to-access areas but requires extensive processing time with various aids to achieve high accuracy. Conversely, TLS requires a long data collection process but can generate a detailed and accurate point cloud directly without lengthy processing. The choice of method thus depends on specific project requirements. Long-term implications include improved efficiency and safety in construction and infrastructure projects, as well as potential cost savings and more detailed inspections.

Globular clusters are tracers of the formation and evolution of their host galaxies. Kinematics, chemical abundances, age and position of the clusters allows tracing interactions between Milky Way and surrounding galaxies and outlines their chemical enrichment history. In this thesis we analyse mid-resolution spectra of about 800 red giant stars in 51 Galactic globular clusters. It is the first time that [Fe/H] and [Mg/Fe] derived in a consistent way are published for such a huge sample of globular clusters, almost 1/3 of the total number of catalogued clusters. Our metallicities are showed to be more precise than previous works based on mid-resolution spectroscopy. A turnover at [Fe/H] ~ -1.0 is found in the plot [Fe/H] vs. [Mg/Fe] for bulge and halo, although bulge seems to have a more metal-rich turnover, i.e, bulge has more efficient formation than the halo. Comparing the abundances with age the timescale for SNIa to start to become important is 1Gyr. [Fe/H] vs. age corroborates the different star formation efficiency of bulge and halo while [Mg/Fe] does not follow that. Halo was formed in mini halos or dwarf galaxies, and two multiple population clusters had their origin analysed to check it. M 22 seems to have been formed in the Milky Way while NGC 5824 possibly was originated in a dwarf galaxy, although our results are inconclusive for NGC 5824. The Galactic bulge seems to have been formed fast i.e., probably the oldest globular cluster is there. In fact HP 1 has a bluer horizontal branch than expected for its metallicity and we interpret that as an age effect. We determine its distance using light curves of variable stars in order to constrain future age determinations via colour-magnitude diagram. Finally, we investigate interaction between Milky Way and its neighbour galaxy SMC. We find that some star clusters are being stripped out of the SMC main body, which is consistent with tidal stripping scenario for the interaction between the galaxies, instead of ram pressure that would only affect gas. / Aglomerados globulares são traçadores da formação e evolução de suas galáxias. Cinemática, abundâncias químicas, idades e posições dos aglomerados permitem traçar interações entre Via Láctea e galáxias vizinhas e suas histórias de enriquecimento químico. Nesta tese analisamos espectros de média resolução de mais de 800 estrelas gigantes vermelhas em 51 aglomerados globulares Galácticos. É a primeira vez que [Fe/H] and [Mg/Fe] determinados de modo consistente são publicados para uma amostra desse porte, ~1/3 dos objetos catalogados. Nossas metalicidades são mais precisas que trabalhos anteriores similares. Uma quebra em [Fe/H] ~ -1.0 é encontrada no gráfico [Fe/H] vs. [Mg/Fe] para o bojo e halo, embora bojo parece ter uma quebra em [Fe/H] maior, i.e, bojo tem formaçãao mais eficiente que o halo. Comparando abundâncias com idade, a escala de tempo para SNIa ficar importante é 1Gano. [Fe/H] vs. idade corrobora diferentes eficiências de formação do bojo e halo, mas [Mg/Fe] vs. idade não mostra isso. O halo foi formado em mini halos ou galáxias anãs, e dois aglomerados com dispersão em [Fe/H] tiveram suas origens analisadas. M 22 parece ter sido formado na Via Láctea e NGC 5824 possivelmente foi originado em uma galáxia anã, embora os resultados são inconclusivos para NGC 5824. O bojo parece ter sido formado rapidamente e deve possuir o aglomerado mais velho. De fato, HP 1 tem um ramo horizontal mais azul que o esperado para sua metalicidade e vemos isso como um efeito da idade. Determinamos sua distância usando curvas de luz de RR Lyrae de maneira a restringir futuras determinações de idade via diagrama cor-magnitude. Finalmente, investigamos a interação entre Via Láctea e sua galáxia vizinha SMC. Encontramos aglomerados sendo removidos do corpo central da SMC, consistente com cenário de remoção por força de maré para a interação entre as galáxias, em vez de ``ram pressure\'\' que afeta só gás.

科学研究費補助金 研究種目:基盤研究(C) 課題番号:17510006 研究代表者:石坂 隆 研究期間:2005-2006年度