Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Michael E. Dikeman / Sixty cull cows were utilized to investigate the effects of feeding a single or sequence of β-adrenergic agonists (β-AA) on performance, mRNA expression, carcass traits, economics, meat palatability, and ground beef color. Treatments included: 1) concentrate fed for 74 d (C); 2) concentrate fed for 49 d then supplemented with ractopamine-HCl for 25 d (RH); 3) concentrate fed for 51 d then supplemented with zilpaterol-HCl for 20 d (ZH); 4), concentrate fed for 26 d then supplemented with RH for 25 d followed by ZH for 20 d (RH + ZH). No differences existed among treatments for performance or carcass characteristics. However, cows supplemented with ZH (ZH and RH + ZH treatments) had increased LM areas (P = 0.18) compared to control and RH cows. Sequential feeding of RH followed by ZH had no influence on β2-adrenergic receptor (AR) mRNA expression. However, β2-AR mRNA was increased (P < 0.05) in the RH and ZH treatments when RH or ZH was supplemented during the last 20 to 25 d of feeding. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) Type IIa mRNA decreased (P < 0.05) from d 24 to 51 in all cows, while MHC-IIx increased (P < 0.05) in the ZH and RH + ZH treatments during ZH supplementation. No differences were observed in ground beef color shelf-life among treatments. Effects of β-AA supplementation on meat palatability varied among muscles. Infraspinatus steaks had improved (P < 0.05) WBSF values with β-AA supplementation. Psoas major steaks from the RH + ZH treatment were rated as more tender than steaks from all other treatments. Non-enhanced LM steaks from ZH supplemented cows had higher (P = 0.12) WBSF values along with decreased (P < 0.0001) percentages of degraded desmin compared to control and RH cows. Collagen solubility of the LM was increased with ZH supplementation compared to RH and control cows. Enhancement of steaks with 0.1 M calcium lactate improved LM tenderness of β-AA supplemented cows. Implanting and feeding cull cows for 74 d, regardless of β-AA supplementation, added value by transiting cows from a “cull” cow to “white” cow market.

In light of often derogatory and unqualified assessments of Yiddish literature adapted from German narrative models, this thesis will propose a different approach to viewing these adaptations. Building on methodologies and frameworks of analyses developed in contemporary medieval scholarship, this thesis pushes for a re-assessment of this literature and suggests a flexible model of adaptation that views adaptation as a creative interaction between two texts. In response to unsatisfactory approaches to judaizing strategies found in Yiddish texts adapted from German literature, this thesis also suggests a different approach. Judaizing processes can either be part of overall processes of adaptation aimed at coding the text as Jewish within an overarching framework of renewed cultural specificity; or, they can function as translation principles by achieving equivalence with the original model. To illustrate both ends of this scale of adaptation, this thesis centres on two early modern Yiddish texts: the Kuhbukh (Verona, 1595) and the Siben weisen mainster bichel (Basel, 1602). The four chapters at the core of this thesis develop and apply extensive frameworks of literary analyses which enable us to rigorously assess the differing levels of adaptations (translation and Wiedererzählen) of both texts. This thesis pushes for a future reassessment of other popular Yiddish narratives adapted from German models. This could ideally be achieved by a positioning of each individual Yiddish text based on German narratives on the proposed scale of adaptation. This should be backed by verifiable methodologies and analyses devoid of unjustifiably dismissive opinions. This would consequently move scholarship towards structured, methodological analyses of early Yiddish secular literature.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Ruminal pH is the rumen condition that varies most. Studying the cause and effect of diurnal variation offers a means of improving ruminal conditions for rumen micro-organisms with subsequent improvements in fibre degradation, milk yields and milk composition. A research project was conducted to test the following hypothesis: feeding 6 kg (as is) concentrate per cow/day in different weight ratios, divided in a morning and an afternoon allocation, will result in an improved ruminal pH profile and a concurrent increase in fibre fermentation, milk yield and improved milk composition. The project was conducted at the Outeniqua Research Farm in the Southern Cape of South Africa. A randomized block design was used and two phases, viz. ryegrass phase and a kikuyu phase, were applied. Each phase was conducted during the growing season of the grass specie used as pasture. A rumen study and a production study were done in each phase. The rumen study used six cannulated multiparous cows per treatment, testing rumen pH, volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration, in sacco degradation of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and dry matter (DM). The production study used 42 multiparous cows, blocked according to days in milk (DIM), parity and milk yield, and cows were randomly divided into three treatment groups. The study tested milk yield, milk composition and changes in body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS). Treatments consisted of a maize based concentrate supplement (6 kg per cow/day, as is) being fed to cows on pasture in different weight ratios between morning and afternoon allocation. Treatments used in the production study were: Concentrate fed: 5 kg during morning; 1 kg during afternoon • Concentrate fed: 4 kg during morning; 2 kg during afternoon • Concentrate fed: 3 kg during morning; 3 kg during afternoon The first and the last treatments mentioned above were used in the rumen studies. Results of the rumen study of the ryegrass phase showed no differences in ruminal pH between treatment means. The time (h) spent below the critical ruminal pH, i.e. 5.8, was of short duration (2.92 to 3.42 hours). The concentration of certain VFA’s differed at times, but the differences were not reflected in graphs and data of the ruminal pH. No differences were observed in in sacco NDF and DM degradation between treatment means. Similar results were mostly obtained in the kikuyu phase. No differences were found in either daily maximum, minimum or mean ruminal pH between treatment means. Though time (h) spent below the critical ruminal pH was of a long duration (7.1 hours) it did not differ between treatments. No differences were observed between treatment means for in sacco NDF and DM degradation. Results of the production study of the ryegrass phase showed no differences in milk yield or milk composition between treatment means. The same was observed in the kikuyu phase except that milk fat was higher in the treatment group that received the 3:3 kg ratio treatment. The fact that treatments did not differ in terms of milk yield and milk composition in the production studies can be attributed to no differences between treatments in terms of rumen parameters observed in the rumen studies. Thus, feeding a higher proportion of concentrate in the morning relative to the afternoon for a total of 6 kg per cow/day does not affect ruminal pH, fibre digestion or milk production. Based on the results of both phases it can be concluded that the null hypothesis should be rejected. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die invloed van kragvoer voedingsstrategieë op rumen parameters, melkproduksie en melksamestelling van Jerseykoeie op raaigras- (Lolium multiflorum) of kikoejoe- (Pennisetum clandestinum) weidings. Die invloed van kragvoer voedingsstrategieë op rumen parameters, melkproduksie en melksamestelling van Jerseykoeie op raaigras- (Lolium multiflorum) of kikoejoe- (Pennisetum clandestinum) weidings. Behandelings toegepas in die produksiestudie het bestaan uit ‘n kragvoeraanvulling met ‘n mieliebasis wat aan koeie op weidings gevoer is in verskillende gewigsverhoudings tussen oggend- en middagvoeding, as volg: Behandelings toegepas in die produksiestudie het bestaan uit ‘n kragvoeraanvulling met ‘n mieliebasis wat aan koeie op weidings gevoer is in verskillende gewigsverhoudings tussen oggend- en middagvoeding, as volg:

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Kikuyu over-sown with ryegrass forms the basis of pasture based systems in the Southern Cape. During early spring, energy is the first limiting nutrient in kikuyu/ryegrass pasture, supplementation is thus essential. Supplementation consists mainly of high starch concentrates (high maize inclusion), which is expensive and could negatively affect rumen parameters. The objective of this study was to determine if milk production could be improved or maintained, and if the rumen environment would be improved, by replacing high starch concentrates with low starch (high by-product) concentrates for dairy cows on kikuyu/ryegrass pasture. Forty-five multiparous, high producing, lactating Jersey cows [body weight, 340 ± 34.7 kg; milk yield (MY), 19.6 ± 2.23kg/d; days in milk (DIM), 153 ± 33.5; lactation number, 3.6 ± 1.85; (mean ± SD)] were used in the production study. A randomised block design was used. The forty-five cows were allocated to fifteen groups of three each (blocking) on the basis of MY, DIM, and lactation number. Cows from each group were randomly allocated to one of three treatment groups (high starch, medium starch and low starch concentrate supplementation). Cows were fed 6kg (3kg during each milking) concentrate per day and were allocated fresh pasture ad lib after each milking. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) found in milk yield and fat corrected milk yield between treatment groups. Milk fat percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the low starch treatment than in the high starch treatment. Milk fat yield was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in both the low starch and the medium starch treatment when compared to the high starch treatment. Milk protein and lactose percentages, as well as milk urea nitrogen and somatic cell count, did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments. Live weight change, as well as body condition score change, was unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatments indicating body reserves were not used to maintain milk production in the low starch treatment. A rumen metabolism study was also done with ten lactating, cannulated Jersey cows [body weight, 332 ± 56.3 kg; MY, 17.3 ± 1.73kg/d (mean ± SD)] were used. The cows were divided into two groups of five each, on the basis of lactation number, DIM, and MY. The five cows from each group were randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups (high starch and low starch concentrate supplementation) and used in a cross-over design. Cows were fed 6kg concentrate per day and were allocated fresh pasture ad lib after each milking. The volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatment when compared to the low starch treatment. The individual VFA’s, acetic-, propionic- and butyric acid concentrations were also significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatments when compared to the low starch treatment. The acetic to propionic acid ratio was unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatment. Rumen ammonia-nitrogen concentration was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatment. Rumen pH was unaffected (P > 0.05) by supplementation type. The in sacco dry matter and neutral detergent fibre digestibilities of the kikuyu/ryegrass pasture were unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatment type. Results indicated that milk production could be maintained with low starch concentrates which also improved milk composition. Results further suggested that the rumen environment was relatively unaffected by low starch concentrate supplementation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kikoejoe, oorgesaai met raaigras, vorm die basis van weidingstelsels in the Suid-Kaap. Tydens die lentemaande is energie die eerste beperkende voedingstof op kikoejoe/raaigras weidings, wat kragvoeraanvulling noodsaaklik maak. Aanvulling bestaan grootliks uit hoëstysel-kragvoer (hoë mielieinhoud) wat nie net duur is nie, maar dit kan ook die rumenomgewing benadeel. Die doel van die studie was om vas te stel of melkproduksievlakke onderhou kan word en of rumenomgewing verbeter kan word deur die vervanging van hoëstysel-kragvoer met laestysel-kragvoer (hoë neweprodukinhoud) vir melkkoeie op kikoejoe/raaigras weidingstelsels. Vyf-en-veertig meervoudige pariteit-, hoë produserende, lakterende Jerseykoeie [liggaamsmassa, 340 ± 34.7 kg; melkproduksie, 19.6 ± 2.23kg/d; dae in melk, 153 ± 33.5; laktasienommer, 3.6 ± 1.85; (gem ± standaardafwyking)] is gebruik vir die produksiestudie van die proef. Daar is gebruik gemaak van ‘n ewekansige blokontwerp. Die vyf-en-veertig koeie is opgedeel in vyftien groepe van drie elk, gebaseer op melkproduksie, dae in melk en laktasienommer. Koeie in elke groep is ewekansig aan een van drie behandelings (hoëstysel-, mediumstysel- of laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling) geallokeer. Koeie is daagliks 6kg (3kg tydens twee milkings) kragvoer gevoer en vars weiding was ad lib beskikbaar na elke melking. Daar was geen beduidende verskil (P > 0.05) in melkopbrengs of vet-gekorrigeerde melkopbrengs tussen die drie behandelings nie. Bottervetpersentasie was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die laestyselbehandeling in vergelyking met die hoëstyselbehandeling. Bottervetopbrengs was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in beide die laestysel- en mediumstyselbehandelings in vergelyking met die hoëstyselbehandeling. Melkproteïen- en melklaktosepersentasies, asook melkureumstikstof en somatise seltelling, was onveranderd (P > 0.05) tussen behandelinge. Liggaamsmassa en liggaamskondisietelling het geen verskille (P > 0.05) getoon tussen behandelings nie, wat daarop dui dat liggaamsreserwes nie gebruik is om melkproduksie in die laestyselbehandeling te onderhou nie. ‘n Rumenmetabolismestudie is ook uitgevoer met tien lakterende, gekannuleerde Jerseykoeie [liggaamsmassa, 332 ± 56.3 kg; melkproduksie, 17.3 ± 1.73kg/d (gem ± standard afwyking)]. Die koeie is in twee groepe van vyf elk verdeel, gebasseer op laktasienommer, dae in melk en melkproduksie. Die vyf koeie van elke groep is in ‘n omslagontwerp gebruik en is ewekansig aan een van twee behandelings (hoëstysel- of laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling) geallokeer. Koeie het daagliks 6kg kragvoer ontvang en vars weiding was ad lib beskikbaar na elke melking. Die vlugtige vetsuurkonsentrasie was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Die individuele vlugtige vetsure naamlik asynsuur, propionsuur en bottersuur, was ook beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Die asynsuur- tot propionsuurverhoudings het geen verskille (P > 0.05) tussen behandelings getoon nie. Rumen-ammoniakstikstof was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Rumen-pH het geen verskille (P > 0.05) getoon tussen behandelings nie. Die in sacco droëmateriaal- en neutraalbestande veselverteerbaarhede van kikoejoe/raaigras weiding het geen verskille (P > 0.05) tussen behandelings getoon nie. Die resultate het aangedui dat melkproduksie onderhou kan word en dat melksamestelling verbeter kan word met laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling. Resultate het ook daarop gedui dat die rumenomgewing nie noodwendig verbeter word deur die aanvulling van laestysel-kragvoer vir koeie op kikoejoe/raaigras weidings nie.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In vitro and in situ methods using the in sacco technique have a wide application in ruminant nutrition as they allow the degradability and quality of forages and ruminant diets to be determined quicker and at a lower cost than in vivo methods. These trials make use of artificial fibre bags, made of polyester (dacron) or nylon which are available in variable pore sizes. Results from such degradability trials are of great value to feed formulation programs such as AMTS.cattle and CPM Dairy and the more accurate the results are obtained from such trials the more accurate feed formulation models are enabling the ruminant nutritionist to formulate the best diet possible to reach the genetic potential of ruminants. The accepted method for in sacco trials (NRC, 2001) requires that the feed samples are ground through a 2 mm screen. This usually results in a variety of particle sizes, including a significant amount of extremely fine particles. Research has, however, shown that these fine particles can potentially be washed out of the dacron bags that are used in in sacco degradability trials. This would result in an overestimation of the soluble and rapidly fermentable nutrient fractions. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of fine particle removal from ground forage samples on the chemical composition and in vitro dry matter (DM) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) degradability of forages. Lucerne hay, oat hay and wheat straw samples were sourced from seven different locations in the Western Cape. Samples were milled through a 2 mm screen and then sieved through either 150 μm, 125 μm or 106 μm. All fractions were analysed for DM, crude protein (CP), NDF, fat and ash. Based on the NDF content of the original samples, four samples from each forage type were selected for in vitro trials to determine DM and NDF disappearance over time. Samples were incubated for 0, 6, 24 and 48 hours in an ANKOM Daisy II incubator. Significant variation occurred within forage types in terms of chemical composition. Fine particle removal had no effect on the NDF content of lucerne hay and wheat straw, but sieved oat hay fractions had a higher NDF content than the un-sieved samples. The NDF content was on average 635.9 for the sieved OH fractions, whereas the NDF content of the un-sieved samples was 606.8. The CP content of sieved oat hay (61.4 on average) and wheat straw fractions (47.7 on average) were lower than the un-sieved fractions (65.7 for OH and 55.4 for WS), whereas for lucerne hay, sieving had no effect on CP content. Dry matter and NDF disappearances were significantly higher for the un-sieved samples than for the sieved fractions for all three forage types at all incubation times, which indicates an overestimation of the soluble and readily digestible forage fractions. Compared to sieved samples, DMD values at 0 hours (washing only) of the un-sieved samples were, on average, 13.8% higher for lucerne hay, 27.3% for oat hay and 44.7% for wheat straw. At 48 h, the overestimation of lucerne DMD for the un-sieved samples was between 4.0% (compared to 106 μm sieve) and 7.3% (compared to 150 μm sieve). This over-estimation in the un-sieved samples was carried over to all four time points. No significant differences between the fractions (150, 125 and 106) were found within a forage type at all incubation times. The estimated degradation rates and the predicted digested proportions were also significantly higher for the un-sieved fractions compared to the sieved fractions. It was concluded that fine particle removal from forage samples would result in more accurate estimations of in sacco nutrient degradability. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In sacco in vitro- en in situ-metodes word dikwels toegepas in die studie van herkouervoeding aangesien hierdie metodes vinniger, meer effektief en meer ekonomies is as in vivo-metodes. Hierdie studies maak gebruik van kunsveselsakkies, gemaak van poliëster (dacron) of nylon wat beskikbaar is in verskeie poriegroottes. Resultate van sulke verteringsproewe is belangrik vir toepassing in voerformuleringsprogramme soos AMTS.cattle en CPM Dairy. Die resultate wat deur hierdie studies verkry word, is belangrik vir akkurate voerformulering deur formuleringsmodelle en stel die herkouervoedingkundige in staat om die ideale voer te formuleer vir die manifestering van die dier se genetiese potensieaal. Die aanvaarde in sacco-metode (NRC, 2001) vereis dat voermonsters deur ‘n 2 mm sif gemaal word wat ‘n groot verskeidenheid partikelgroottes tot gevolg het met ‘n beduidende hoeveelheid baie fyn materiaal. Navorsing het getoon dat hierdie baie fyn partikels uit die dacronsakkies gewas kan word tydens in sacco verteringstudies, met die gevolg dat die oplosbare en vinnig-verteerbare fraksie oorskat kan word. Die doel van die huidige studie was om die invloed van die verwydering van fyn partikels op die chemiese samestelling van ruvoermonsters te bepaal, asook die in vitro droë materiaal (DM) en neutraal-onoplosbaare vesel (NDF) verteerbaarheid daarvan. Monsters van lusernhooi, hawerhooi en koringstrooi, afkomstig van sewe verskillende lokaliteite in die Wes-Kaap, is deur 'n 2 mm sif gemaal en sub-monsters is deur ‘n reeks siwwe met poriegroottes van 150 μm, 125 μm of 106 μm gesif. Al die fraksies is geanaliseer vir DM, ruproteïen (RP), NDF, vet en as. Vier monsters van elke voertipe is op grond van die NDF-inhoud geselekteer vir in vitro-studies om die DM- en NDF- verteerbaarheid oor tyd te bepaal. Monsters is vir 0, 6, 24 of 48 uur geïnkubeer. Die resultate het getoon dat daar betekenisvolle variasie in chemiese samestelling binne ruvoertipes voorgekom het. Die verwydering van die fyn partikels het geen invloed die NDF-inhoud van lusernhooi en koringstrooi gehad nie. Wat hawerhooi betref, was die NDFinhoud van die gesifte monsters egter betekenisvol hoër in vergelyking met die ongesifte monsters. Die NDF inhoud was gemiddeld 635.9 vir die gesifte monsters en vir die ongesifte monsters 606.8. Sifting het geen invloed op die RP-inhoud van lusernhooi gehad nie, maar vir hawerhooi (61.4 gemiddeld) en koringstrooi (47.7 gemiddeld) was die RP-inhoud van die gesifte monsters betekenisvol laer as dié van die ongesifte monsters (65.7 vir hawerhooi en 55.4 vir koringstrooi). In vergelyking met die gesifte monsters, was die in vitro DM- en NDF-verteerbaarhede betekenisvol hoër vir die ongesifte monsters vir al drie ruvoertipes by alle inkubasietye. Hierdie resultate bevestig ‘n oorskatting van oplosbare en maklik verteerbare fraksies in gemaalde voermonsters. In vergelyking met die gesifte monsters, was die DMV-waardes van die ongesifte monsters by 0 ure (slegs gewas) gemiddeld 13.8% hoër vir lusernhooi, 27.3% vir hawerhooi en 44.7% vir koringstrooi. Na 48 h inkubasie was die oorskatting van lusern DMV vir die ongesifte monsters tussen 4.0% (vergeleke met die 106 μm sif) en 7.3% (vergeleke met 150 μm sif). Die oorskatting is oorgedra na al vier inkubasietye. Die resultate het geen noemenswaardige verskille tussen die fraksies (150 μm, 125 μm en 106 μm poriegroottes) van ‘n ruvoertipe by enige inkubasietyd aangedui nie. Die beraamde verteringstempo’s en verteerde fraksies was ook aansienlik hoër vir die ongesifte monsters in vergelyking met die gesifte monsters. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat die verwydering van fyn partikels uit gemaalde ruvoermonsters die akkurate bepaling van in sacco verteerbaarheidswaardes verhoog.

A mastite é uma das doenças mais prevalentes e de maior impacto a cadeia do leite. Apesar da mastite subclínica não apresentar sintomas aparentes é responsável pela redução na produção, qualidade, rendimento industrial e tempo de prateleira do leite. A CCS do tanque (CCST) tem sido utilizada como indicador do número de vacas infectadas nos rebanhos, entretanto indicadores calculados a partir da CCS individual, como a prevalência, refletem com maior precisão a situação dos rebanhos frente a mastite subclínica. Dessa forma, os objetivos desse estudo foram estimar a prevalência (%) em grande população de rebanhos brasileiros, analisar os efeitos do tamanho dos rebanhos, estações do ano e CCST sobre esse indicador e o impacto na produção e composição do leite. Para isso, foram analisados 7213 testes diários (TD) de 860 rebanhos brasileiros que enviaram amostras para a \"Clínica do Leite\", no período entre janeiro de 2016 e maio de 2018. A prevalência (%) foi definida como o número de vacas com CCS >= 200 mil céls/mL, dividido pelo número de vacas em lactação do rebanho. Para analisar os efeitos do tamanho dos rebanhos, estações do ano e CCST sobre a prevalência e a CCST, essas variáveis foram comparadas dentro das diferentes categorias de tamanho de rebanho, estação do ano e contagem de células somáticas do tanque. Foram compiladas as variáveis CCS individual das vacas (mil céls/mL), número de vacas do rebanho, CCS do tanque (CCST) (mil céls/mL), produção média do rebanho (L/vaca/dia) e os constituintes do leite do tanque: gordura (%), proteína (%), caseína (%), lactose (%), extrato seco total (EST) (%) e nitrogênio ureico do leite (NUL) (mg/dL) para analisar o efeito da prevalência sobre a produção e componentes do leite. Os rebanhos foram categorizados quanto a prevalência e realizadas análises descritivas e de comparação de médias. Análises de regressão foram empregadas para estudar os efeitos quantitativos da prevalência sobre a composição e produção do leite. Para avaliar o grau de associação entre as variáveis de forma conjunta, foi utilizada a análise de correspondência multivariada. A média da prevalência no período estudado foi de 46,95% (860 rebanhos) e a mediana da CCST de 388 mil céls/mL (620 rebanhos). Tanto a prevalência como a CCST foram maiores no verão e outono (estações mais quentes e úmidas). Em rebanhos com baixa CCST (<= 200 mil céls/mL) não houve efeito do tamanho dos rebanhos sobre a prevalência, entretanto nas categorias com maior CCST, os rebanhos menores apresentaram maior prevalência. Com o aumento da prevalência dos rebanhos a produção de leite foi reduzida e a CCS do tanque aumentada. A lactose foi o único sólido do leite que apresentou redução na sua concentração com o aumento da prevalência, entretanto quando foram avaliados a produção de sólidos dos rebanhos em kg/dia, a gordura, proteína, lactose e o extrato seco total (EST) apresentaram redução em função da menor produção de leite. Os resultados encontrados nesse estudo evidenciam o impacto da mastite subclínica nos rebanhos brasileiros, servem de alerta e estímulo para o governo, indústria e produtores criarem e implementarem programas de controle da mastite para a melhoria da qualidade do leite. / Mastitis is the most common infectious disease of dairy cows and results in considerable economic loss for both dairy farmers and milk processors. Although the subclinical mastitis do not show apparent symptoms, it is responsible for decrease milk production and quality, industrial income and shelf time. Bulk tank somatic cell count (BTSCC) has been used as an index of number of infected cows at the herd, however, index calculated from the SCC at cow level, as prevalence, reflects better the herd situation regarding subclinical mastitis. Thus, the aim of this study were to estimate the prevalence (%) in a large population of Brazilian dairy herds, analyze the effects of herd size, season and BTSCC on the prevalence and the impact on milk production and composition. There were analyzed 7.213 test day from 860 Brazilian dairy herds from January 2016 to May 2018. The prevalence was taken as the number of the cows with SCC greater than 200.000 cell/mL and divided it by the number of lactating dairy cows of the herd. To evaluate the herd size, season and BTSCC categories effects on prevalence and BTSCC, these variables there were compared among different categories of herd size, season and BTSCC. There were collected the follow information: SCC at cow level (cell/mL), number of cows of the herd, BTSCC (cell/mL), milk production (L/cow/d) e bulk tank milk components: fat (%), protein (%), casein (%), lactose (%), total dry extract (%) and milk urea nitrogen (MUN) (mg/dL) to analyze the prevalence effects on milk production and components. The herds there were categorized as prevalence and descriptive and t-student analysis were performed. Regression analysis were performed to evaluate the quantitative effects on milk production and composition. In order to evaluate the degree of association between the variables together, were performed multivariate correspondence analysis. The prevalence average was 46.95% (860 dairy herds) and the BTSCC median was 388.000 cell/mL (620 dairy herds). The prevalence and BTSCC were higher in the summer and fall (hottest and wet season). In the herds with low BTSCC (<= 200.000 cell/mL) there was no effect of herd size on prevalence, however, in those categories with higher BTSCC, the small herds showed higher prevalence. When prevalence was higher, the milk production decreased and the BTSCC was higher. The lactose concentration decreased when prevalence was high, however, when solids production (kg/d) was evaluated, fat, protein, lactose and total dry extract decreased due to lower milk production. The results found in this study show the impact of subclinical mastitis on Brazilian dairy herds, are an alert and stimulus for the government, industry and dairy farmers to create and implement mastitis control programs to improve milk quality.

Estratégias de vedação tem sido adotadas com o intuito de reduzir a entrada de oxigênio para o interior dos silos. Aditivos químicos como o benzoato de sódio, que apresenta funções antimicrobianas também pode ser empregado para melhoria da estabilidade aeróbia de silagens. Porém, ainda não se sabe se pode causar efeitos adversos no consumo ou metabolismo dos animais alimentados e, consequentemente levar a alterações no desempenho animal. Desta forma no presente estudo, objetivou-se avaliar a influência de estratégias de vedação de silos trincheira sobre as perdas de MS e valor nutritivo de silagens de milho e, a adição de benzoato sódio na ração total no valor nutritivo para vacas leteiras. O experimento foi conduzido no Departamento de Zootecnia da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (ESALQ/USP). A cultura do milho foi colhida com aproximadamente 35% de matéria seca (MS) e ensilada em silos trincheira (capacidade de 40 t). No momento do fechamento dos silos, dois tratamentos foram impostos: (1) lona dupla-face 200 &mu;m protegida com bagaço de cana-de-açúcar (camada com espessura de 10 cm) (BG) e, (2) aplicação superficial de benzoato de sódio 150 g/m2 (diluído em água 1:4) imediatamente antes da vedação com lona dupla-face 200 &mu;m (BZ). Vinte vacas Holandesas em lactação foram alocadas em cinco Quadrados Latinos 4 × 4 em períodos de 21 dias (14 d adaptação). As dietas experimentais continham (%MS): 8% de caroço de algodão, 9,5% de polpa cítrica, 18% de farelo de soja, 9,0% de milho moído seco, 2,5% premix mineral + vitaminas e 53% de silagem de milho: BG ou BZ ou silagem de milho BG + 0,15% de benzoato de sódio ou silagem de milho BZ mais 0,15% de benzoato de sódio. O benzoato de sódio foi diluído em água (0,3:1) e aspergido na ração total imediatamente antes de cada trato. Os dados foram submetidos à análise utilizando-se o procedimento MIXED do SAS, através de arranjo fatorial 2 × 2. A silagem com cobertura de bagaço de cana foi mais eficiente em reduzir a entrada de oxigênio durante o processo de fermentação e, consequentemente levou ao menor crescimento de microrganismos deterioradores e melhor conservação dos nutrientes da silagem, resultando em maior digestibilidade da MS. A adição de benzoato de sódio na dose de 0,15% na MN não altera o desempenho de vacas leiteiras. / Sealing strategies have been adopted to reduce oxygen entrance to silo. Chemical additives such as sodium benzoate have antimicrobial activity and it can also promote an aerobic stability on silage. Nevertheless it is still unknown if sodium benzoate supplementation on silage may affect animal consumption or cause deleterious effect on metabolism with influence on animal performance. The objective of this study was using different sealing strategies to assess dry matter loss and nutritional value on corn silage, and the influence of supplementing sodium benzoate on total mixed ration for dairy cattle. This trial was conducted at Animal Science Department of Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ/USP). Corn crop was harvested with 35% of dry matter (DM) and ensiled on horizontal silos (40 t capacity). A factorial design (2x2) for silo sealing and benzoate as an additive on dietary feed were evaluated. Silo sealing strategies were confected as follows: (1) Plastic film doubled-sized 200 &mu;m covered with bagasse (layer thickness 10 cm) (BG) and 2) application of sodium benzoate on top surface of ensiled mass pulverizing 150 g m-2 (dilution of 1:4) sealing it immediately with plastic film double-sided 200 &mu;m (BZ). After 343 days of storage, the silos were open and the lactation trial started. Two dietary treatments evaluated the addition sodium benzoate on feed mixture of total ration. Sodium benzoate was incorporated (+ 0.15 % on total feed) on corn silage from BG and BZ and no incorporation to BG and BZ were used as control treatment. Dietary sodium benzoate was diluted on water (0.3:1 ratio) and pulverized on total ration immediately before each meal. Feed formulation: 8% cottonseed meal, 9.5% citric pulp, 18% soybean meal, 9% dry corn meal, 2.5 % vitamin and mineral premix, and 53% of corn silage. Twenty Holstein cows lactating were allocated in five Latin squares (4 x 4) during 21 days (14 days to acclimate) and fed twice a day. Dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield and quality were recorded between day 15th and 21st from each experimental period. Data were subjected to MIXED procedure from SAS for factorial design (2x2). The silage with sugarcane bagasse coverage was more effective in reducing the oxygen input during the fermentation process and consequently led to lower growth of spoilage microorganisms and better conservation of silage nutrients, resulting in increased digestibility of dry matter. Adding 0.15 % of sodium benzoate on fresh matter diet doesn\'t affect the performance of dairy cows.

Objetivou-se avaliar a utilização de ureia encapsulada de liberação Lenta nas dietas de vacas em lactação e seus efeitos sobre o consumo e digestibilidade aparente total da matéria seca e dos nutrientes, fermentação ruminal, produção microbiana ruminal, produção e composição do leite, e as concentrações de parâmetros sangüíneos. Foram utilizadas 16 vacas da raça Holandesa com produção média de 30,0 kg/dia, agrupadas em 4 quadrados latinos 4x4 balanceados e contemporâneos, recebendo as dietas experimentais: 1) Controle (CT), ração sem a inclusão de ureia; 2) Ureia pecuária (UP), com a utilização de 1,0% de UP na ração, baseada na matéria seca (MS); 3) Ureia encapsulada 1 (UE1), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE1 na ração, baseada na MS; e 4) Ureia encapsulada 2 (UE2), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE2 na ração, baseada na MS. O volumoso utilizado foi a silagem de milho, em relação de 50:50 (relação volumoso:concentrado). A produção de leite e o consumo de matéria seca foram mensurados diariamente durante todo o período experimental. As amostras utilizadas para análise da composição do leite foram coletadas no 16&ordm; dia de cada período experimental, sendo provenientes das duas ordenhas diárias. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas em tubos vacuolizados por punção da veia e/ou artéria coccígea. As amostras de líquido ruminal foram coletadas com a utilização de sonda esofágica três horas após a alimentação matinal. A digestibilidade foi determinada por meio de indicador interno FDAi. Não houve diferença para consumo de matéria seca, matéria orgânica, proteína bruta, extrato etéreo, fibra em detergente neutro e nutrientes digestíveis totais. Foi observado aumento na digestibilidade da proteína bruta e nos nutrientes digestíveis totais observados nos animais submetidos às dietas contendo ureia quando comparados aos animais alimentados com a dieta controle. Não houve efeito das dietas experimentais sobre o pH e concentração de amônia ruminal. Foi observado aumento nas concentrações totais de ácidos graxos de cadeia curta e do ácido propiônico nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais alimentados com as dietas com inclusão de ureia, mas não foi observada alteração na relação acetato:propionato e na proporção molar dos ácidos graxos de cadeia curta. Também não foi observada diferença na síntese e na eficiência de síntese de proteína microbiana. Não houve diferença para o consumo de compostos nitrogenados totais, e nas excreções de compostos nitrogenados na urina, no balanço de nitrogênio e na eficiência de utilização do nitrogênio. Foi observado aumento na excreção de compostos nitrogenados no leite e nas fezes nos animais tratados com a ração controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas com ureia. Também foi observado aumento na produção de leite, e na produção de gordura e lactose nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas contendo ureia. Não houve diferença para as concentrações sanguíneas de glicose, ureia, e nitrogênio ureico. A utilização de ureia na alimentação de vacas em lactação, apesar de ter reduzido a produção de leite, não influenciou a produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura, e a sua composição. Nas condições em que os animais foram avaliados neste estudo não foi observada diferença no desempenho e metabolismo entre as vacas suplementadas com ureia, seja encapsulada ou não. / The aim was to evaluate the use of polymer-coated slow release urea (PCU) in rations for lactating cows by evaluating its effects on consumption and nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, rumen microbial yield, production and milk composition, and concentrations of blood parameters. To perform this experiment were used 16 Holstein cows with average production of 30.0 kg/day, divided into four 4x4 balanced and contemporary latin squares, receiving the experimental diets: 1) Control (CT) diet without the addition of urea, 2) Feedgrade Urea (FGU), with the use of PCU 1.0% in the diet based on dry matter (DM), 3) PCU 1, with the use of PCU1 1.0% of the diet, based on DM, and 4) PCU 2 , with the use of 1.0% PCU2 in the diet, based on DM. The forage used was corn silage in a ratio of 50:50 (forage:concentrate ratio). Milk production (MP) and dry matter intake (DMI) were measured daily throughout the experimental period. The samples used to analyze the composition of milk were collected on the 16th day of each experimental period, and from the two daily milkings. Blood samples were collected in tubes vacuolated by vein puncture and/or coccygeal artery. The rumen fluid samples were collected with the use of esophageal probe three hours after the morning feeding. The digestibility was determined by means of the internal marker indigestible acid detergent fiber. There was no difference for DMI, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber and total digestible nutrients. There was a increase in the digestibility of crude protein and total digestible nutrients in animals treated with urea diets compared to animals fed the control diet. There was no effect on pH and ruminal ammonia. An increase in concentrations of total short-chain fatty acid and propionic acid was observed in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals fed diets with inclusion of urea. There was no change in acetate: propionate ratio and the molar ratio of short-chain fatty acids. There was no difference in the synthesis and efficiency of synthesis of microbial proteins. There was no difference in consumption of total nitrogen compounds, and nitrogen compounds excretion in urine, nitrogen balance and nitrogen use efficiency. There was an increase in the excretion of nitrogenous compounds in milk and feces in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals treated with urea rations. Was observed an increase in milk production and total fat and lactose production in animals treated with the control diets compared to animals treated with urea rations. There was no difference in blood concentrations of glucose, urea and urea nitrogen. The use of urea in the feeding of dairy cows, despite the lower milk production, did not influenced fat corrected milk yield (3,5%) and its composition. Under conditions in which animals were evaluated in this study there was no difference in performance and metabolism between cows supplemented with urea, polymer-coated slow release or not.

As práticas de manejo das pastagens tropicais recomendadas para utilização intensiva da planta permitem ao animal colher material de boa qualidade. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar se a proteína bruta (PB) proveniente do capim seria suficiente para atender as exigências de vacas leiteiras no terço médio da lactação, tornando desnecessária a utilização de suplementos protéicos no concentrado. Buscou-se também a caracterização da PB do capim e a adequação protéica da dieta, visando otimizar a eficiência de utilização do nitrogênio. No primeiro estudo, 33 vacas holandesas e mestiças (HPBxJersey), no terço médio da lactação, produzindo em média 20 L dia-1, foram agrupadas em 11 blocos, de acordo com composição racial, dias em lactação e produção de leite e receberam suplemento concentrado com três níveis de PB durante 76 dias. Os concentrados continham milho moído fino, minerais, vitaminas e os três níveis de proteína (T1: 8,7%; T2: 13,4%; T3: 18,1% MS) foram obtidos substituindo-se parte do milho por farelo de soja. O capim elefante foi adubado com 50 kg N ha-1 por pastejo e apresentou teor médio de PB de 18,5%. As produções de leite e de leite corrigido para 3,5% de gordura, os teores e produções de gordura, proteína e caseína no leite, a síntese de proteína microbiana e o consumo de matéria seca (CMS) não foram influenciados (P>0,05) pelos teores de PB dos concentrados. A concentração de nitrogênio uréico no leite aumentou linearmente (P<0,01) com o aumento dos teores de PB dos concentrados. A excreção de N pela urina foi maior (P<0,05) para os concentrados contendo farelo de soja (T2 e T3) em relação ao concentrado contendo apenas milho (T1). No segundo estudo, 4 vacas holandesas secas, fistuladas no rúmen, foram distribuídas em um quadrado latino 4x4 e submetidas aos mesmos tratamentos do primeiro estudo, acrescidos de um quarto concentrado (T4) com 13,4% de PB, tendo uréia como fonte de nitrogênio. O CMS foi maior para o T4 (P<0,05), sugerindo deficiência de PDR nos outros tratamentos. Entretanto, essa hipótese não foi confirmada pelos parâmetros ruminais (pH, e ácidos graxos de cadeia curta) e síntese microbiana, que não sofreram efeito dos teores e fontes de PB no concentrado. A concentração de N amoniacal no rúmen foi menor (P<0.05) para T1 do que para os demais tratamentos. A excreção total de N no ambiente acompanhou numericamente o teor de PB dos concentrados, mas as diferenças não foram detectadas pela análise estatística. O terceiro estudo utilizou os mesmos animais e tratamentos do segundo para avaliar a cinética de degradação ruminal da MS, PB e FDN do capim por meio de ensaio in situ. Os concentrados protéicos (T2, T3 e T4) não melhoraram a degradação ruminal do capim, em relação ao concentrado energético (T1), confirmando que a proteína do pasto foi suficiente para maximizar a fermentação ruminal. O fornecimento de farelo de soja no concentrado de vacas em terço médio de lactação, mantidas em pastagens tropicais manejadas intensivamente, não resultou em nenhum benefício produtivo e aumentou a excreção de N no ambiente. / Grazing management techniques are improving the quality of the forage consumed by grazing dairy cows. The objective of this study was to determine if forage crude protein (CP) would be sufficient to achieve the nutritional requirements of midlactating dairy cows, making unnecessary the use of protein supplements on the concentrate. It also aimed to characterize the forage CP fractions and to balance the diet protein content to optimize nitrogen use efficiency. In the first trial, 33 Holstein and crossbred (Holstein X Jersey) mid-lactating dairy cows, producing 20 L d-1, were grouped in 11 blocks, according to breed, days in milk and milk yield and were fed three levels of CP on the concentrate supplement for 76 days. Concentrates contained fine ground corn, minerals, vitamins and three CP levels (T1:8.7, T2:13.4 and T3:18.1% DM) that were achieved by replacing corn with soybean meal. Pasture was fertilized with 50 kg N ha-1 after each grazing cycle and averaged 18.5% CP. There was no difference (P>0.05) in milk yield, fat corrected milk, fat, protein and casein content and yield, microbial synthesis and dry matter (DM) intake among treatments. Milk urea nitrogen increased linearly (P<0.01) as the concentrate CP content increased. The N urine excretion was greater (P<0.05) with the soybean meal concentrates (T2 and T3) than with the corn concentrate (T1). In the second trial, 4 rumen cannulated Holstein dry cows were used in a 4x4 Latin square and assigned to the same treatments used in the first study plus a fourth concentrate (T4) with 13,4% CP, containing urea instead of soybean meal as the N source. Dry matter intake was greater for T4 (P<0.05), suggesting a PDR deficiency in the other treatments. However, this hypothesis was not confirmed by ruminal parameters (pH and short chain fatty acids concentration) neither by microbial synthesis, that were not affected by the levels or sources of CP on the concentrate. Ruminal ammonia N content numerically increased as the concentrate CP content increased, but no differences were detected by the statistic analysis. The third study used the same animals and treatments of the second study to evaluate the ruminal kinetics of DM, CP and NDF of Elephant grass by an in situ assay. Protein concentrates (T2, T3 and T4) didnt improve forage ruminal degradation in relation to the energy concentrate (T1), confirming that the forage protein content was sufficient to optimize ruminal fermentation. The inclusion of soybean meal in the concentrate of midlactating dairy cows grazing intensively managed tropical grasses didnt result in productive advantage and increased the N excretion to the environment.

Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar o efeito do tamanho médio de partícula (TMP) de rações contendo cana-de-açúcar sobre o desempenho de vacas e cabras em lactação e desenvolver equações que estimem a associação do TMP com algumas variáveis de desempenho. As vacas foram alimentadas em três lotes, com 10 animais cada. A ração total foi constituída de 11,2 % de PB e relação FDN/CNF de 1,45. Os tamanhos de partículas da cana-de-açúcar variaram entre 4,75 e 15,90 mm. Foram avaliados o CMS, o comportamento ingestivo, a produção e a composição do leite. O CMS (kg.dia-1) foi avaliado por lote e as demais medidas eram realizadas individualmente. A variável CMS apresentou regressão quadrática (P = 0,0472) indicando inicialmente que com o aumento do TMP o CMS foi reduzido. Para o CFDN também foi encontrada regressão quadrática (P = 0,0004), e aumentos no TMP podem diminuir o consumo total das fibras. Pôde-se verificar adequação para regressão linear no teor de gordura do leite (kg; P = 0,0360) e proteína do leite (kg; P = 0,0360). As equações demonstraram que a PL e a porcentagem de gordura do leite são diminuídas quando associadas ao aumento do TMP. Para o índice de seleção (IS) foi observado ajuste linear para a peneira Y1 e Y2. O modelo sugere que maiores tamanhos de partículas aumentam o IS. Efeito quadrático foi observado para o tempo de mastigação por unidade de MS (P=0,0479). O modelo gerado indicou que maiores tamanhos de partículas promovem aumento no tempo de mastigação por kg de MS. As cabras foram alimentadas com rações contendo canade- açúcar ou silagem de milho com 15,7 e 16,1 % PB e relação FDN/CNF de 1,44 e 1,47, respectivamente. As cabras foram alimentadas e avaliadas individualmente e os TMP variaram entre 5,50 e 10,05 mm para as rações contendo cana-de-açúcar e de 6,88 e 7,95 mm para rações contendo SM. Apenas para o CMS em relação a % do peso vivo (PV) foi ajustada equação de regressão linear (P = 0,0443). Esse ajuste indicou que o aumento do TMP pode promover aumento no CMS (% PV) para a cana-de-açúcar. Ajustes para o modelo de regressão em relação ao IS foram observados apenas para rações contendo cana-de-açúcar e revelaram que o aumento do TMP nas frações Y1 e Y3 diminuiu o IS. O comportamento observado para o tempo de ruminação e mastigação por kg de FDN foi quadrático demonstrando tendência à diminuição desses parâmetros conforme o TMP é aumentado. A FDNfe foi de 43,10% para a cana-de-açúcar e 34,82% para a silagem de milho. Houve ajuste para equação de regressão quadrática para a relação gordura:proteína (P = 0,0423), em que maiores TMP aumentaram essa relação. As concentrações NUL, NUP e glicose plasmática não apresentaram nenhum ajuste para a análise de regressão. Portanto, nessas condições de estudo, o emprego da avaliação do TMP nos sistemas de produção deve ser incluído. / This study aimed to evaluate the effect of mean particle size (MPS) of diets containing sugarcane on the performance of lactating cows and goats and to develop equations to estimate the association of MPS with some variables of performance. The cows were fed in three lots, with 10 animals each. The total diet consisted of 11.2% crude protein (CP) and a NDF/nonfiber carbohydrates (NFC) ratio of 1.45. The sugarcane particle sizes varied between 4.75 and 15.90 mm. There were evaluated the dry matter intake (DMI), feeding behavior, milk production and composition. The DMI (kg.day-1) was evaluated by batches and further measures were taken individually. The DMI showed quadratic regression (P = 0.0472) indicating initially that with MPS increase, the DMI was reduced. For the NDF intake (NDFI) it was also observed a quadratic regression (P = 0.0004), and increases in MPS can reduce total fiber intake. It could be verified adequacy for a linear regression for milk fat content (kg; P = 0.036) and milk protein (kg; P = 0.036). The equations showed that milk protein and fat content (%) decreased when associated to an increase in MPS. For the selection index (SI) it was observed a linear adjustment for the sieves Y1 and Y2. The model suggests that higher particle sizes increase the SI. Quadratic effect was observed for chewing time per unit of DM (P = 0.0479). The generated model indicated that higher particle sizes promote increase in chewing time per kg of DM. The goats were fed with diets containing sugarcane or corn silage with 15.7 and 16.1% CP and NDF/NFC, 1.44 and 1.47, respectively. The goats were fed and evaluated individually and MPS ranged between 5.50 and 10.05 mm for the diets containing sugarcane and 6.88 mm and 7.95 for diets containing corn silage (CS). Only for DMI in relation to body weight (BW) percentage the linear regression was adjusted (P = 0.0443). This adjustment indicated that the MPS increases can result in increases of sugarcane DMI (% BW). Adjustments for the regression model in relation to SI were observed only for diets containing sugarcane and revealed that the increase in the MPS of the Y1 and Y3 fractions reduced the SI. The pattern observed for ruminating and chewing time per kg of NDF was quadratic demonstrating a tendency for reduction of these parameters as MPS increases. The physically effective NDF of diets were 43.10 for sugarcane and 34.82 for CS. Quadratic equation was adjusted for fat:protein relation (P = 0.0423), where higher MPS increased this relation. The MUN, PUN and plasmatic glucose concentrations didn´t show any adjustment for the regression analyses. Therefore, under these study conditions, the MPS should be included in the evaluation of production systems.