A interação entre fragmentos de bicamada (BF) de brometo de dioctadecildimetilamônio (DODAB) e um mononucleotídeo-modelo (deoxiadenosina monofosfato, dAMP) ou um oligodeoxinucleotídeo-modelo (5\'- AAAAAAAAAA-3\', poli(dA)) ou um oligodeoxinucleotídeo terapêutico (5\'- TTGACGTTCG -3\', CpG) foi investigada por turbidimetria, espalhamento de luz dinâmico, espectroscopia de dicroísmo circular e de fluorescência e calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC). Respostas imunológicas foram caracterizadas com ensaio de hipersensibilidade tardia por inchamento de coxim patelar de camundongo, dosagem de anticorpos IgG1 e IgG2a e de citocinas secretadas por células de linfonodo em cultura. Poli(dA), em contraste com dAMP, induziu fusão máxima de DODAB BF a partir da neutralização de cargas, quando houve obtenção de um tamanho máximo e um potencial-zeta igual a zero para os arranjos. Para [poli(dA)] maiores do que aquela correspondente à neutralização de cargas, houve recuperação da estabilidade coloidal com reversão do potencial-zeta e com obtenção de tamanhos que foram aproximadamente o dobro daqueles determinados inicialmente para DODAB BF. A proporção molar de neutralização poli(dA): DODAB foi 1:10 para DODAB BF e 1:20 para vesículas grandes (LV) de DODAB, de acordo com as estruturas de bicamada aberta e fechada dessas duas dispersões de bicamada de DODAB. A fusão de DODAB BF induzida por poli(dA) foi extensiva aumentando o grau de empacotamento das bicamadas formadas conforme inferido a partir dos termogramas de DSC. Em condições de equivalencia de cargas, nucleotídeo não causou fusão de DODAB BF, mostrando a importância do caráter de polieletrólito do poli(dA) para induzir fusão. O sal divalente Na2HPO4 causou fusão e aumentou o empacotamento da bicamada graças à blindagem eficiente de cargas. Reestabilização coloidal como aquela induzida por poli(dA) não ocorreu em presença de Na2HPO4, NaCl ou nucleotídeo. Para complexos DODAB BF/CpG em presença de ovalbumina (OVA) como antígenomodelo, a neutralização de cargas de DODAB BF/OVA por CpG reduziu a estabilidade coloidal, enquanto que supercompensação de cargas levou à reestabilização por repulsão eletrostática, como observado para a interação DODAB BF/poli(dA). Diferenças no tamanho e nas proporções de neutralização por CpG indicaram que os fragmentos são capazes de carregar mais moléculas de OVA do que de BSA. Na região de supercompensação de cargas com potenciais-zeta negativos, arranjos Al(OH)3/ OVA/ CpG são coloidalmente bem mais instáveis que DODAB BF/ OVA ou DODAB BF / OVA/ CpG. O complexo negativamente carregado DODAB (0,1 mM) / OVA (0,1mg/mL)/ CpG (0,020 mM) potencializou a resposta Th1 obtida com DODAB (0,1 mM)/ OVA (0,1 mg/mL). Houve um aumento de 25 % no inchamento do coxim patelar, de 36 % na produção de IFN-γ, de 60 % de IL-12 e produção sustentada de IgG2a ao longo de 35 dias pós-imunização, todos indícios fortes de potencialização da resposta Th1 por CpG. Arranjos negativamente carregados de oligonucleotídeos em fragmentos de bicamada de DODAB possuem excelente potencial para terapias baseadas em oligonucleotídeos e para produção de vacinas para diferentes antígenos de interesse. / The interaction between bilayer fragments (BF) of dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB) and a model nucleotide (deoxyadenosine monophosphate, dAMP) or a model oligodeoxynucleotide (5\'- AAAAAAAAAA-3\', poly(dA)) or a therapeutic oligodeoxynucleotide (5\'- TTGACGTTCG -3\', CpG) was investigated by means of turbidimetry, dynamic light scattering, circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopies and differential scanning calorimetry. Immune responses were characterized using footpad swelling delayed type hipersensitivity assay and antibody and cytokine measurements. In contrast to dAMP, poly(dA) induced maximal DODAB BF fusion from charge neutralization, where assemblies presented maximal size and zero zeta-potential. Above charge neutralization colloid stability was recovered with negative zeta-potentials and sizes that were about the double of those initially determined for DODAB BF. The poly(dA):DODAB molar ratio for neutralization was 1:10 for DODAB BF and 1:20 for DODAB LV, in agreement with the open and closed bilayer structures of these two DODAB bilayer dispersions. The poly(dA)-induced DODAB BF fusion was extensive and increased the packing of the formed bilayers, as inferred from DSC thermograms. In conditions of charge equivalence, nucleotide did not cause DODAB BF fusion, highlighting the importance of poly(dA)\'s polyelectrolyte character to induce fusion. Divalent Na2HPO4 salt caused fusion and increased bilayer packing due to efficient BF charge shielding. Colloid restabilization as induced by poly(dA) was not observed in presence of Na2HPO4, NaCl and nucleotide. For DODAB BF/CpG complexes in presence of the ovalbumin (OVA) model antigen, the charge neutralization of DODAB BF/OVA by CpG reduced colloid stability, while charge overcompensation led to restabilization due to electrostatic repulsion, as observed for DODAB BF/poly(dA) interaction. Differences in size and neutralization proportions by CpG indicate that BF are able to load more OVA than BSA molecules. In the charge overcompensation region with negative zeta-potentials, Al(OH)3/OVA/CpG assemblies are colloidally less stable than DODAB BF/OVA or DODAB BF/OVA/CpG. The negatively charged DODAB (0.1mM)/OVA (0.1mg/ml)/CpG (0.020mM) assembly enhanced the Th1 response obtained with DODAB (0.1mM)/OVA (0.1mg/ml). There was a 25% increase in footpad sweeling, a 36% and 60% increase in the production of IFN-γ and IL-12 and sustained IgG2a production for the 35-day period after immunization, all indicative of strong Th1 response enhancement by CpG. Negatively charged assemblies of oligonucleotides in DODAB bilayer fragments have excellent potential in oligonucleotidebased therapies and in vaccine production for different antigens of interest.

Esta tese é estruturada em dois capítulos. O primeiro capítulo explora os retrotransposons com LTR (LTR-RT) em cana-de-açúcar e grande parte de seus resultados foram publicados no artigo \'\'Analysis of plant LTR-retrotransposons at the fine-scale family level reveals individual molecular patterns\'\'. Nossos resultados mostraram que as diferentes famílias de LTR-RT em cana-de-açúcar possuem estruturas e regulação distintas. O segundo capítulo desta tese visa responder a perguntas que surgiram durante a primeira metade deste trabalho, mas ao invés de focar no genoma de uma planta optamos por trabalhar com linhagem Del de LTR-RT em dez genomas de angiospermas sequenciados. Os resultados desta parte do trabalho foram submetidos para publicação no artigo intitulado \'\'Virus-like attachment sites and plastic CpG islands: landmarks of diversity in plant Del retrotransposons\'\'. Os resultados mostraram que a LTR é uma região dinâmica e importante para a evolução dos LTR-RTs. Nós especulamos que mudanças nas LTR atuem como gatilhos para a diversificação dos LTR-RTs. / This doctoral thesis is structured in two chapters. In the first chapter we explore the LTRretrotransposons (LTR-RT) in sugarcane, these results were published in an article entitled \'\'Analysis of plant LTR-etrotransposons at the fine-scale family level reveals individual molecular patterns\'\'. In this paper we show that different sugarcane LTR-RT families have distinct structure and are differentially regulated. In the second chapter we try to find answers to questions that came up in the first half of this work, but instead of focusing in one plant genome we chose to work with the Del lineage of LTR-RT in tem angiosperm sequenced genomes. These results are submitted to publication as an article entitled \'\'Virus-like attachment sites and plastic CpG islands: landmarks of diversity in plant Del retrotransposons\'\'. Our results indicate that the LTR region is dynamic and important in the evolution of LTR-retrotransposons, we speculate that it is a trigger for retrotransposon diversification.

L'encéphalomyélite myalgique (EM), communément appelée syndrome de fatigue chronique (SFC), est une maladie chronique complexe, impliquant divers facteurs biochimiques, métaboliques, génétiques et épigénétiques dans sa pathogenèse. L'EM se caractérise par une fatigue persistante et débilitante, un malaise post-effort (PEM), des douleurs, des troubles du sommeil, des troubles cognitifs et d'autres symptômes. L'EM constitue un problème de santé important, compte tenu de sa prévalence dans la population générale. Cependant, notre compréhension des origines de l’EM reste limitée; son diagnostic est difficile et il n’existe aucun traitement curatif définitif ni de biomarqueur officiellement approuvé. Les approches de prise en charge actuelles visent principalement à soulager les symptômes, soulignant le besoin urgent de mieux comprendre ses causes sous-jacentes. Le développement de l’EM est reconnu comme une confluence de prédispositions génétiques et d’expositions environnementales, compte tenu de l’hétérogénéité clinique de cette pathologie. Ces dernières années, de nombreuses voies étiologiques ont été suggérées, notamment un développement post-infectieux de l’EM, qui reste l’une des principales hypothèses. L'implication de mécanismes épigénétiques, principalement la méthylation de l'ADN, un régulateur bien documenté de l'expression des gènes, est également apparu comme un acteur essentiel dans la pathogenèse de l'EM. Il est intéressant de noter, et avec une note d’inquiétude, que près de deux ans après la pandémie de SRAS-CoV-2 à l’origine du COVID-19, une cohorte croissante d’individus auparavant en bonne santé souffre du Long COVID (LC), une manifestation de symptômes persistants provenant de l’infection initiale. Il est remarquable de constater qu’il existe un chevauchement évident entre les présentations cliniques de l’EM et de la LC. Cependant, les mécanismes qui sous-tendent ce chevauchement restent encore à élucider. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, je me suis intéressée dans un premier temps à identifier les changements épigénétiques associés à l'EM à partir de la salive. Le choix d’utiliser la salive représente une approche non-invasive et découle également du fait que des études précédentes ont mis en évidence que les profils de méthylation de l’ADN obtenu des cellules buccales présentes dans la salive étaient assez similaires aux profiles observés au niveau du cerveau et des muscles (des tissus difficilement accessibles mais pourtant atteints dans l’EM) comparativement aux cellules mononuclées du sang périphériques (PBMCs). Cette approche pourrait aider à établir une signature épigénétique susceptible de combler le fossé conceptuel entre la génétique et l'influence environnementale dans la pathogenèse de l'EM. En effet, les sites CpG/gènes identifiés avec une méthylation différentielle pourraient être impliqués dans des mécanismes physiopathologiques associés au développement et/ou à la gravité de l'EM. Après correction de Bonferroni, mes travaux ont révélé un seul site CpG, "cg19803194", différentiellement méthylé chez les patients atteints d'EM par rapport aux sujets sains appariés pour l’âge. Ce site CpG est situé dans le corps du gène PTPRN2 codant pour la tyrosine phosphatase receptor type N2. De plus, le gène PTPRN2 contient un microARN intronique, le miR-153-3p (miR-153-2), qui est corégulé avec son gène hôte. En raison des défis éthiques et logistiques liés à l'accès aux tissus cérébraux ou musculaires, nous avons mesuré les niveaux circulants en miR-153-3p dans le plasma comme mesure de substitution pour évaluer les fluctuations de l'expression de PTPRN2. Nous avons donc analysé ce miARN comme un proxy prometteur pour mieux comprendre la dynamique d’expression de PTPRN2. Notre stratification des patients atteints d'EM basée sur les niveaux de méthylation de l'ADN cg19803194 (hypo vs hyper) a révélé qu'une réduction des niveaux circulants du miR-153-3p a été observée dans le groupe hypo-méthylé, ce qui concorde avec de précédentes études montrant que l'hypométhylation au niveau du corps des gènes, entraine habituellement une diminution de leur transcription. Cependant, l’intrigue a été amplifiée par un schéma contre-intuitif observé chez un sous-ensemble de patients. Cette découverte inattendue, nous a incité à découvrir un mécanisme alternatif régissant la régulation des niveaux de miR-153-3p en circulation, qui implique de manière complexe une interaction dynamique des niveaux nucléaires de PHB2 (Prohibitine 2) dans le contrôle de la maturation de certains miARN dont le miR-153-3p. La LC est un trouble complexe avec des symptômes prolongés et hétérogènes qui s’apparentent avec l’EM. Dans le cadre de ma seconde étude, nous avons utilisé une manoeuvre de provocation standardisée pour induire un malaise post-effort (PEM), ce qui nous a permis de stratifier les patients LC en deux groupes : LC1 (sévère) et LC2 (léger à modéré) en fonction de la gravité du PEM. Les patients LC1 présentaient des scores de gravité de la maladie significativement plus élevés et des scores neurocognitifs plus mauvais que les patients classés dans le groupe LC2. Ceci était étroitement lié aux scores PEM élevés chez les patients LC1 et aux scores PEM réduits chez les patients LC2. Nous avons également utilisé le profilage de la méthylation de l'ADN des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) pour étudier les changements dans la méthylation de l'ADN associés aux symptômes de la LC (n = 24) par rapport aux participants ayant eu la COVID-19, suivie d’une rémission complète (SC pour Short COVID en anglais) (n = 4). Il est intéressant de noter que nous avons identifié des altérations de plusieurs gènes impliqués dans le dysfonctionnement neurocognitif et le changement de la réponse immunitaire liés à la persistance des symptômes de la LC. En outre, dans le cadre de ma troisième étude, nous avons effectué une analyse complète de la méthylation de l'ADN à l'échelle du génome, à partir d'échantillons de salive provenant du même groupe de patients LC (n=24) LC, de 4 participants SC et de 13 témoins sains (HC) pré-pandémiques. Nous avons étudié les signatures épigénétiques associées à la LC. Nous avons constaté que les patients LC présentaient une hypométhylation significative de trois gènes communs, MEST, DDR1 et LRP1, par rapport aux participants SC et HC. Ces gènes sont impliqués dans la cascade de l’inflammation, l’altération de la réponse immunitaire et des maladies neurologiques. Nous avons également signalé des altérations de la méthylation de LGR6, ZFAND2A et TDG dans les PBMCs et la salive chez les mêmes individus associés à la sévérité de la LC. Plus précisément, nous avons constaté une hypométhylation au niveau des gènes LGR6 et ZFAND2A et une hyperméthylation au niveau du gène TDG dans les cas graves (groupe LC1) par rapport aux cas légers à modérés (groupe LC2). Cette convergence de profils entre la salive et les PBMCs souligne l'importance de LGR6, ZFAND2A et TDG dans la gravité des LC. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus dans le cadre de cette thèse apporte un éclairage nouveau et pertinent sur les mécanismes épigénétiques qui sous-tendent l’EM et la COVID longue. Les nouvelles connaissances présentées dans les trois manuscrits ci-joints devraient nous permettre de mieux comprendre l’EM et la COVID longue, de développer de futures stratégies diagnostiques, thérapeutiques et préventives, mais également de mieux gérer les effets à long terme de ces conditions. En effet, les altération épigénétiques identifiées dans ces deux contextes pathologiques, plus précisément au niveau de la méthylation de l’ADN, pourraient être impliquées dans la sévérité et la persistance des symptômes de ces pathologies complexes, distinctes et présentant tout de même des similitudes. / Myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), also known as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), is a complex chronic disease involving various biochemical, metabolic, genetic, and epigenetic factors. Patients with ME experience persistent and debilitating fatigue, post-exertional malaise (PEM), pain, sleep disturbances, cognitive impairment, and other symptoms. ME is a significant health problem, with an estimated prevalence of 0.2% to 0.5% in the general population. However, our understanding of the origins of ME remains limited; its diagnosis is complex, and there is no definitive cure or officially approved biomarker. Current management approaches focus primarily on relieving symptoms, highlighting the urgent need to understand its underlying causes better. The development of ME is thought to be a confluence of genetic predispositions and environmental exposures. In recent years, many etiological pathways have been suggested, including a post-infectious development of ME, which remains one of the main hypotheses. The involvement of epigenetic mechanisms, primarily DNA methylation, a well-documented regulator of gene expression, has also emerged as a critical player in the pathogenesis of ME. Interestingly, and with a note of concern, nearly two years after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic that caused COVID-19, a growing cohort of previously healthy individuals suffer from Long COVID (LC), a manifestation of persistent symptoms from the initial infection. Remarkably, there is a clear overlap between the clinical presentations of ME and LC. However, the mechanisms underlying this overlap remain to be elucidated. This thesis investigated the epigenetic mechanisms underlying ME and LC. As part of this thesis, I was initially interested in identifying the epigenetic changes associated with ME from saliva. Saliva is a non-invasive sample that can be easily collected, and previous studies have shown that the DNA methylation profiles obtained from buccal cells present in saliva are similar to those observed in the brain and muscles. This suggests that saliva could be used as a proxy for these tissues, which are difficult to access but are thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of ME. I used Bonferroni's correction to identify a single CpG site, "cg19803194", differentially methylated in ME patients compared to age-matched healthy subjects. This CpG site is located in the body of the PTPRN2 gene, which encodes the tyrosine phosphatase receptor type N2. The PTPRN2 gene also contains an intronic microRNA, miR-153-3p (miR-153-2), which is co-regulated with its host gene. Due to ethical and logistical challenges, I measured circulating levels of miR-153-3p in plasma as a surrogate measure to assess fluctuations in PTPRN2 expression. This miRNA is a promising proxy for understanding the expression dynamics of PTPRN2 because it is located in the same gene and is co-regulated with it. My stratification of ME patients based on cg19803194 DNA methylation levels (hypo vs hyper) revealed that a reduction in circulating levels of miR-153-3p was observed in the hypo-methylated group. These findings agree with previous studies showing that hypomethylation in the body of genes usually decreases their transcription. However, a counterintuitive pattern was observed in a subset of patients. This unexpected finding prompted me to discover an alternative mechanism governing the regulation of circulating miR-153-3p levels. This mechanism involves a dynamic interaction of nuclear PHB2 (Prohibitin 2) levels in controlling the maturation of certain miRNAs, including miR-153-3p. LC is a complex disorder with prolonged and heterogeneous symptoms that resemble myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). In my second study, we used a standardized provocative maneuver to induce post-exertional sickness (PEM), which allowed us to stratify LC patients into two groups: LC1 (severe) and LC2 (mild to moderate), depending on the severity of the PEM. LC1 patients had significantly higher disease severity scores and worse neurocognitive scores than patients classified in the LC2 group. This was closely related to high PEM scores in LC1 patients and reduced PEM scores in LC2 patients. We also used peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) DNA methylation profiling to investigate changes in DNA methylation associated with LC symptoms (n=24) compared to participants who had COVID followed by complete remission Short COVID (SC) (n = 4). Interestingly, we identified alterations in several genes implicated in neurocognitive dysfunction and changes in immune response related to the persistence of LC symptoms. In my third study, we also performed a comprehensive genome-wide DNA methylation analysis of saliva samples from the same group of LC patients (n=24), 4 SC participants, and 13 pre-pandemic healthy controls (HC). We studied the epigenetic signatures associated with LC. We found that LC patients showed significant hypomethylation of three common genes, MEST, DDR1, and LRP1, compared to SC and HC participants. These genes are involved in the cascade of inflammation, impaired immune response, and neurological disease. We also reported LGR6, ZFAND2A, and TDG methylation alterations in PBMCs and saliva in the same individuals associated with CL severity. Specifically, we found hypomethylation at the LGR6 and ZFAND2A genes and hypermethylation at the TDG gene in severe cases (LC1 group) compared to mild to moderate cases (LC2 group). This convergence of profiles between saliva and PBMCs highlights the importance of LGR6, ZFAND2A, and TDG in the severity of CL. All the results obtained in this thesis shed new and relevant light on the epigenetic mechanisms underlying ME and LC. The new knowledge in the three attached manuscripts allowed us to understand ME and LC better, develop future diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive strategies, and better manage these conditions' long-term effects. Epigenetic alterations, more precisely at the level of DNA methylation, have been identified in both ME and long-term COVID. These alterations could be involved in the severity and persistence of the symptoms of these complex pathologies, which are distinct but share some similarities. The findings of this thesis suggest that epigenetics could be a promising target for developing new treatments for ME and long-term COVID. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and to develop effective therapeutic interventions.

The association between extent of chronic cannabis use (CCU-extent) and cognitive impairment among adolescents has been the subject of controversial debate. Linking DNA methylation to CCU-extent could help to understand cannabis associated changes in cognitive performance. We analyzed cognitive task performances, CpG methylation in peripheral whole-blood samples and self-reported past-year CCU-extent of n = 18 adolescents (n = 9 psychiatric outpatients with chronic cannabis use (CCU), n = 9 without) who were matched for age, gender and psychiatric disorders. Patients with CCU were at least 24 h abstinent when cognitive tasks were performed. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out to identify group differences in whole genome DNA methylation. Mediation analyses were performed between CCU-extent associated CpG sites and CCU-extent associated variables of cognitive tasks. PCA results indicated large differences in whole genome DNA methylation levels between the groups that did not reach statistical significance. Six CpG sites revealed reduced methylation associated with CCU-extent. Furthermore, CCU-extent was associated with lower scores in verbal learning. All six CpG sites mediated the effects between CCU-extent and verbal learning free recall. Our results indicate that CCU is associated with certain patterns in the methylome. Furthermore, CCU-extent associated impairments in memory function are mediated via differential methylation of the six CCU-associated CpG sits. Six identified CpG are located in genes previously described in the context of neurodegeneration, hippocampus-dependent learning and neurogenesis. However, these results have to be carefully interpreted due to a small sample size. Replication studies are warranted.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Anatomy and Physiology / Elizabeth G. Davis / Activation of innate immunity through Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling can also enhance antigen-specific adaptive immunity. TLR9 is an endosomal receptor for unmethylated bacterial and viral cytosine-phosphate-guanine DNA (CpG-DNA). West Nile virus (WNV) infection may result in meningitis and encephalitis in humans and horses, especially aged and immunocompromised individuals. Using flow cytometric analyses and quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we investigated equine cell-mediated immunity (CMI) to an inactivated West Nile virus vaccine in healthy yearling and adult horses. We also studied the potential of enhancing equine adaptive immunity to viruses and other pathogens by activation of innate immunity though TLR9 signaling pathway. We found vaccination with inactivated WNV vaccine induced strong WNV-specific T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 CMI with a Th1 bias, also effectively induced WNV-specific CTLs in yearling horses. In adult horses, the pre-existing Th1 CMI bias against WNV was enhanced following booster vaccination with inactivated WNV vaccine. Molecular characterization and flow cytometric analysis of TLR9 expression using a cross-reactive TLR9 mAb identified high constitutive expression of equine TLR9 in neutrophils (PMNs), CD4[superscript]+ and CD8[superscript]+ T cells and other leukocytes. Conservation of equine TLR9 and a high expression profile among leukocytes suggests that equine TLR9 is a frequent target for unmethylated CpG-DNA, an essential mechanism for the activation of innate immunity. Unmethylated CpG-DNA can significantly activate equine PMNs. It also induces expression of interferon (IFN)-[Alpha], IFN-[Beta], IFN-[Gamma], and interleukin (IL)-12p35 in PBMCs, as well as IFN-[alpha] and IFN-[gamma] in monocyte-derived DCs. Enhanced expression of IFNs in immune cells by CpG-DNA is not only crucial for host viral clearance, but also important in mediating host immune responses due to IFNs' anti-inflammatory effects. Compared to the relatively weaker activation of equine innate immunity by inactivated WNV, the tested CpG-DNA species showed potential as vaccine adjuvants for enhancement of CTLs and Th1 CMI against intracellular pathogens, characterized by significant induction of type I IFNs and Th1-specific cytokines such as IL-12p35 and IFN-γ. These data provide a basis for further investigation of these CpG-DNA species as potentially effective vaccine adjuvants in horses.

A principle challenge of modern biology is to understand how the human genome is organised and regulated within a nucleus. The field of chromatin biology has made significant progress in characterising how protein and DNA modifications reflect transcription and replication state. Recently our lab has shown that the human genome is organised into large domains of altered DNA helical twist, called DNA supercoiling domains, similar to the regulatory domains observed in prokaryotes. In my PhD I have analysed how the maintenance and distribution of DNA supercoiling relates to biological function in human cells. DNA supercoiling domains are set up and maintained by the balanced activity of RNA transcription and topoisomerase enzymes. RNA polymerase twists the DNA, over-winding in front of the polymerase and under-winding behind. In contrast topoisomerases relieve supercoiling from the genome by introducing transient nicks (topoisomerase I) or double strand breaks (topoisomerase II) into the double helix. Topoisomerase activity is critical for cell viability, but the distribution of topoisomerase I, IIα and IIβ in the human genome is not known. Using a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) approach I have shown that topoisomerases are enriched in large chromosomal domains, with distinct topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II domains. Topoisomerase I is correlated with RNA polymerase II, genes and underwound DNA, whereas topoisomerase IIα and IIβ are associated with each other and over-wound DNA. This indicates that different topoisomerase proteins operate in distinct regions of the genome and can be independently regulated depending on the genomic environment. Transcriptional regulation by DNA supercoiling is believed to occur through changes in gene promoter structure. To investigate DNA supercoiling my lab has developed biotinylated trimethylpsoralen (bTMP) as a DNA structure probe, which preferentially intercalates into under-wound DNA. Using bTMP in conjunction with microarrays my lab identified a transcription and topoisomerase dependent peak of under-wound DNA in a meta-analysis of several hundred genes (Naughton et al. (2013)). In a similar analysis, Kouzine et al. (2013) identified an under-wound promoter structure and proposed a model of topoisomerase distribution for the regulation of promoter DNA supercoiling. To better understand the role of supercoiling and topoisomerases at gene promoters, a much larger-scale analysis of these factors was required. I have analysed the distribution of bTMP at promoters genome wide, confirming a transcription and expression dependent distribution of DNA supercoils. DNA supercoiling is distinct at CpG island and non-CpG island promoters, and I present a model in which over-wound DNA limits transcription from both CpG island promoters and repressed genes. In addition, I have mapped by ChIP topoisomerase I and IIβ at gene promoters on chromosome 11 and identified a different distribution to that proposed by Kouzine et al. (2013), with topoisomerase I maintaining DNA supercoiling at highly expressed genes. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of DNA supercoiling at promoters and identifies the relationship between supercoiling, topoisomerase distribution and gene expression. In addition to regulating transcription, DNA supercoiling and topoisomerases are important for genome stability. Several studies have suggested a link between DNA supercoiling and instability at common fragile sites (CFSs), which are normal structures in the genome that frequently break under replication stress and cancer. bTMP was used to measure DNA supercoiling across FRA3B and FRA16D CFSs, identifying a transition to a more over-wound DNA structure under conditions that induce chromosome fragility at these regions. Furthermore, topoisomerase I, IIα and IIβ showed a pronounced depletion in the vicinity of the FRA3B and FRA16D CFSs. This provides the first experimental evidence of a role for DNA supercoiling in fragile site formation.

Mammalian genomes are characterised by unique regions of non-methylated DNA known as CpG islands (CGIs). These genomic elements are characterised by a high density of CpGs and an elevated GC content compared to the surrounding, bulk of the genome. CGIs are prevalently associated with the 5’ end of genes and represent key nucleation sites where specific transcription factors and chromatin modifiers are recruited to impact on gene function. This thesis is focused at understanding the biochemical properties of the recently discovered H3K36-specific histone demethylase, KDM2A. This enzyme is specifically recruited to CGIs but how it interfaces with local chromatin in vivo remains unknown. Using defined chromatin templates in vitro, this study demonstrates that KDM2A binding to DNA relies on a zinc finger CXXC domain that preferentially recognizes non-methylated CpGs. In particular, nucleosomes represent a major barrier to KDM2A binding and chromatin substrates are interpreted by the CXXC domain through specific interaction with CpGs within linker DNAs. Moreover, the adjacent PHD domain does not contribute to KDM2A binding to chromatin. Together these observations suggest that sequence, methylation status and accessibility of DNA define how CGI chromatin is interpreted by CXXC domain proteins. In particular, the precise targeting of KDM2A to CGIs contributes to the creation of a unique chromatin architecture that highlights gene regulatory regions within large and complex mammalian genomes.

Cheung Kin Fai. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 87-105). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract (English version) --- p.i / Abstract (Chinese version) --- p.iii / Acknowledgments --- p.vi / Table of Contents --- p.v / List of Tables --- p.viii / List of Figures --- p.iv / List of Abbreviations --- p.xi / Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- GENERAL INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- LITERATURE REVIEW --- p.3 / Chapter 2.1 --- Multiple myeloma --- p.3 / Chapter 2.2 --- Epidemiology of MM --- p.3 / Chapter 2.3 --- Risk factors --- p.4 / Chapter 2.4 --- Pathophysiology of MM --- p.5 / Chapter 2.5 --- Clinical presentations and diagnosis --- p.6 / Chapter 2.5.1 --- Diagnosis --- p.6 / Chapter 2.5.1.1 --- Laboratory testing of blood and urine --- p.6 / Chapter 2.5.1.2 --- Radiographic evaluations --- p.1 / Chapter 2.5.1.3 --- Bone marrow biopsy --- p.7 / Chapter 2.6 --- Staging and classification --- p.9 / Chapter 2.6.1 --- Staging --- p.9 / Chapter 2.6.2 --- Classification --- p.11 / Chapter 2.6.2.1 --- Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance --- p.11 / Chapter 2.6.2.2 --- Asymptomatic MM --- p.12 / Chapter 2.6.2.3 --- Smouldering MM --- p.12 / Chapter 2.6.2.4 --- Indolent MM --- p.12 / Chapter 2.6.2.5 --- Symptomatic MM --- p.12 / Chapter 2.7 --- Treatment --- p.14 / Chapter 2.8 --- Epigenetics: DNA methylation --- p.15 / Chapter 2.9 --- Fundamental aspects of DNA methylation --- p.16 / Chapter 2.9.1 --- CpG islands --- p.16 / Chapter 2.9.2 --- Roles of DNA methylation --- p.16 / Chapter 2.9.3 --- Proposed mechanisms of transcriptional repression mediated by methylation --- p.18 / Chapter 2.10 --- Possible mechanisms to initiate aberrant DNA methylation --- p.21 / Chapter 2.11 --- DNA methylation in tumorigenesis --- p.22 / Chapter 2.11.1 --- Oncogenic point C → T mutation --- p.22 / Chapter 2.11.2 --- Global DNA hypomethylation --- p.23 / Chapter 2.11.3 --- Regional DNA hypermethylation --- p.23 / Chapter 2.12 --- Aberrant DNA methylation in MM --- p.25 / Chapter 2.12.1 --- Self-sufficiency in growth signals --- p.25 / Chapter 2.12.2 --- Evading apoptosis --- p.26 / Chapter 2.12.3 --- Insensitivity to antigrowth signals --- p.26 / Chapter 2.12.4 --- Tissue invasion and metastasis --- p.27 / Chapter 2.12.5 --- Infinite replicative potential --- p.28 / Chapter 2.12.6 --- Genome instability --- p.30 / Chapter 2.13 --- Methodologies of DNA methylation analysis --- p.32 / Chapter 2.13.1 --- Genome wide screening method: MS.AP-PCR --- p.32 / Chapter 2.13.2 --- Combined bisulfite restriction analysis --- p.34 / Chapter 2.13.3 --- Cloned bisulfite genomic sequencing --- p.36 / Chapter 2.13.4 --- Treatment with demethylating agent --- p.36 / Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- MATERIALS AND METHODS --- p.38 / Chapter 3.1 --- MM specimens --- p.38 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- MM samples --- p.38 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- MM cell lines --- p.38 / Chapter 3.2 --- Magnetic cell sorting of CD138-positive plasma cells --- p.39 / Chapter 3.3 --- Isolation of nuclear pellet from PB --- p.41 / Chapter 3.4 --- "DNA extraction from MM cell lines, MM plasma cells and PB" --- p.41 / Chapter 3.5 --- MS.AP-PCR --- p.42 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- Restriction enzyme digestion of genomic DNA --- p.42 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction --- p.42 / Chapter 3.5.3 --- Isolation of differentially methylated DNA fragments --- p.43 / Chapter 3.6 --- Cloning of differentially methylated DNA fragments --- p.46 / Chapter 3.6.1 --- TA cloning --- p.46 / Chapter 3.6.2 --- Heat shock transformation --- p.46 / Chapter 3.6.3 --- Screening of positive clones by PCR --- p.46 / Chapter 3.6.4 --- Alkaline lysis for plasmid DNA preparation --- p.47 / Chapter 3.7 --- MS.AP-PCR sequence analysis --- p.47 / Chapter 3.7.1 --- Nucleotide sequencing --- p.47 / Chapter 3.7.2 --- CpG islands analysis of differentially methylated sequences --- p.48 / Chapter 3.8 --- DNA methylation analysis --- p.48 / Chapter 3.8.1 --- Sodium bisulfite modification --- p.48 / Chapter 3.8.2 --- Combined bisulfite restriction analysis --- p.49 / Chapter 3.8.3 --- Cloned bisulfite genomic sequencing --- p.49 / Chapter 3.9 --- Gene expression analysis --- p.50 / Chapter 3.9.1 --- RNA extraction --- p.50 / Chapter 3.9.2 --- Reverse transcription PCR --- p.50 / Chapter 3.9.3 --- 5'-aza-2'-deoxycytidine treatment --- p.51 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- RESULTS --- p.53 / Chapter 4.1 --- Generation of DNA methylation patterns by MS.AP-PCR --- p.53 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- Global methylation content in MM samples and normal PB lymphocytes --- p.56 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- Differential methylation in MM --- p.56 / Chapter 4.2 --- UCSC BLAT analysis of differentially methylated DNA fragments --- p.60 / Chapter 4.3 --- Identification of two candidate genes with downregulated expression --- p.60 / Chapter 4.4 --- Zinc fingers and homeoboxes 2 (ZHX2) --- p.62 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- ZHX2 CpG islands BLAT search analysis --- p.62 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Hypermethylation of ZHX2 in MM cell lines --- p.63 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Downregulated expression of ZHX2 in methylated MM cell lines --- p.66 / Chapter 4.4.4 --- Restoration of ZHX2 expression by 5-Aza-dC treatment --- p.67 / Chapter 4.4.5 --- Unmethylation of ZHX2 in primary MM tumors --- p.68 / Chapter 4.5 --- Ring finger protein 180 (RNF180) --- p.69 / Chapter 4.5.1 --- RNF180 CpG islands BLAT search analysis --- p.69 / Chapter 4.5.2 --- Hypermethylation of RNF180 in MM cell lines --- p.70 / Chapter 4.5.3 --- Downregulated expression of RNF180 in methylated MM cell lines --- p.73 / Chapter 4.5.4 --- Restoration of RNF180 expression by 5-Aza-dC treatment --- p.74 / Chapter 4.5.5 --- Methylation of RNF180 in primary MM tumors --- p.75 / Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- DISCUSSION --- p.76 / Chapter 5.1 --- Importance of methylation in MM --- p.76 / Chapter 5.2 --- Genome-wide screening approach by MS.AP-PCR --- p.76 / Chapter 5.3 --- Sample selection in MS.AP-PCR --- p.78 / Chapter 5.4 --- Methylation patterns in MM --- p.79 / Chapter 5.5 --- Candidate genes selection strategies --- p.81 / Chapter 5.6 --- Zinc fingers and homeoboxes 2 --- p.81 / Chapter 5.7 --- Ring finger protein 180 --- p.83 / Chapter 5.8 --- Limitations --- p.84 / Chapter CHAPTER 6 --- CONCLUSION --- p.86 / REFERENCES --- p.87

La compréhension de la chimie prébiotique et la recherche de matière organique d’origine extraterrestre qui lui est associée sont parmi les thématiques fortes de la branche de l’astrobiologie qui concerne notamment la recherche de traces de vie dans notre Système Solaire. C’est avec cet objectif que nous nous sommes intéressés à deux objets du Système Solaire : le satellite saturnien Titan, pour ses aérosols organiques, et Mars, pour son habitabilité avérée et la recherche de matière organique in situ. A ces fins, nous avons mis en œuvre deux techniques permettant d’étudier la matière organique de ces objets : la simulation expérimentale qui permet de reproduire en laboratoire des conditions environnementale extraterrestres et la préparation d’analyse in situ grâce à des laboratoires entièrement automatisés implémentés sur des véhicules mobiles, à savoir les rovers Curiosity/MSL actuellement en activité à la surface de Mars et le futur rover Pasteur de la mission ExoMars. La première partie de cette étude est ainsi consacrée à la simulation expérimentale appliquée à l’étude des aérosols organiques de Titan. Nous avons synthétisé en laboratoire des analogues (tholins) de ces aérosols, puis nous avons étudié leur composition moléculaire par pyrolyse et chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse (Pyr-GC-MS). Nous avons tout particulièrement investigué l’influence de la composition du mélange gazeux permettant la synthèse de nos tholins (taux de méthane dans du diazote) sur leur composition moléculaire. Une étude systématique par Pyr-GC-MS nous a permis d’estimer les conditions optimales d’analyse dont la température de pyrolyse. Dans un second temps, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’analyse in situ du sol martien par les instruments SAM-GC-MS et MOMA-GC-MS à bord du rover Curiosity et du futur rover Pasteur respectivement. Ces deux instruments ont la possibilité de mettre en œuvre des techniques de prétraitements des échantillons par chimie humide (dérivatisation) pour faciliter l’extraction, la volatilisation, la préservation et l’identification de la matière organique présente dans le sol martien. Parmi ces techniques, nous avons optimisé les conditions analytiques de la thermochimiolyse en présence de TMAH sur un sol analogue du sol martien pour assurer le succès des futures analyses in situ du sol de Mars par les instruments SAM et MOMA. / The understanding of prebiotic chemistry, and the search for organic matter of extraterrestrial origin associated with it, are among the strong themes of the astrobiology branch, which concerns in particular the search for traces of life in our Solar System. It is with this objective in mind that we have taken an interest in two objects of the Solar System: the Saturn satellite Titan, for its organic aerosols, and Mars, for its proven habitability and research of organic matter in situ. To this end, we have implemented two techniques to study the organic matter of these objects: experimental simulation, which allows the reproduction of extraterrestrial environmental conditions in the laboratory, and preparation of in situ analysis thanks to fully automated laboratories implemented on the Curiosity/MSL rover currently in operation on the surface of Mars, and the future Pasteur rover of the ExoMars mission. The first part of this study is thus devoted to the experimental simulation applied to the study of organic aerosols from Titan. We synthesized analogs (tholins) of these aerosols in the laboratory, then studied their molecular composition by pyrolysis and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC-MS). We investigated in particular the influence of the composition of the gas mixture allowing the synthesis of our tholins (methane content in nitrogen) on their molecular composition. A systematic study by Pyr-GC-MS allowed us to estimate the optimal conditions of analysis including pyrolysis temperature. In a second phase, we were interested in the in situ analysis of the Martian soil by the SAM-GC-MS and MOMA-GC-MS instruments aboard the Curiosity rover and the future Pasteur rover respectively. These two instruments have the possibility of using wet chemistry (derivatization) techniques to pre-treat samples to facilitate extraction, volatilization, preservation and identification of the organic matter present in the Martian soil. Among these techniques, we have optimized the analytical conditions of thermochemolysis in the presence of TMAH on a terrestrial analog of the Martian soil to ensure the success of future in situ analyses of the Mars soil by the SAM and MOMA instruments.

Dong Shumin. / "February 2002." / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 187-220). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese.