Abstract Mutualism is often conditional and the associations vary from antagonism to mutualism along environmental conditions and genotypes of interacting species. I studied antagonism-mutualism continuum hypothesis of symbiosis experimentally using two different Epichloë/Neotyphodium endophytes and their host grasses, agricultural meadow fescues and natural fine fescue, as study systems. These systemic fungal endophytes live asymptomatically within aerial tissues of grasses, and are vertically transmitted to the next grass generation via seeds. Thus, asexual endophyte strains are dependent on the growth, survival and reproduction of their hosts. Epichloë/Neotyphodium endophytes are considered plant mutualists, because they improve the resistance of the host against various stresses, e.g. herbivores. In addition to experimental approach, I examined prevalence and genetic structure of Epichloë festucae in natural grass populations. Finally, current knowledge concerning grass endophytes was reviewed and the effects of variable environment and genetic background on the ecology and the evolution of grass-endophyte symbiosis were discussed. The endophyte improved the performance of the agronomic meadow fescues, but the beneficial effects were dependent on the grass cultivar and the growth environment. The endophyte-infected (E+) meadow fescues were more susceptible to the pathogenic snow molds and they suffered increased winter damage compared to the endophyte-free (E-) plants. Many natural Festuca rubra and F. ovina populations were either endophyte-free or had low infection frequency. The highest infection frequencies were found in subarctic areas where the infection incidence differed between habitats. Twenty out of the 25 E. festucae genotypes detected were carrying multiple alleles in microsatellite loci indicating multiple infections or vegetative hybridization of the fungus. A dominant genotype (63.5% of all isolates) occurred in all populations suggesting that this fungus is mainly asexual. E+ F. ovina seedlings performed worse than endophyte-free E- seedlings. In F. rubra, the river bank originated E+ seedlings allocated fewer, but longer and heavier tillers than the other seedlings indicating possible improved performance of the endophyte infected grasses in harsh river bank conditions. In short, I detected both positive and negative effects of endophyte infection on grasses varying along species, environment and genotypic background of study subjects. The results support the antagonism-mutualism continuum hypothesis.

Le blé (genre Tritucum aestivum, famille des Poaceae) est une céréale d’intérêtagronomique très important. Certaines variétés très anciennes sont mise de côté pour desvariétés plus récentes souvent sélectionnées pour répondre à une culture intensiveconsommatrice de produits phytosanitaires. L’agriculture biologique, système de productionsupposant une réduction des intrants chimiques de synthèse afin de préserver l’écosystème,peut se définir comme une pratique où l’emploi d’engrais synthétiques, de pesticideschimiques et d’organismes génétiquement modifiés est prohibé.Cette pratique gagne de plus en plus en popularité et la superficie des terres cultivéesde cette manière a crû de 60 % entre 2000 et 2004, sur la planète. Les contraintes associées àla production de céréales biologiques comprennent la baisse de rendement attribuable auxcarences d’éléments nutritifs dans le sol et la concurrence des mauvaises herbes. Au cours des90 dernières années, les efforts internationaux d’amélioration du blé se sont concentrés sur lahausse du rendement et les paramètres de qualité.La mise en place d’une base de données des blé basées sur des critèresmorphologiques, taxonomiques et écologiques et l'introduction des mycorhizes à arbuscules(MA), connues pour aider à la sélection et induire une augmentation de rendement et dequalité de la production, dans l'optique de produire plus dans une agriculture respectueuse del’environnement pourrait constituer une partie intégrante d'une stratégie appropriée.Cependant, les effets mycorhiziens sur les rendement et la qualité de la production ne sont pastoujours prévisibles et les mécanismes qui régulent ces paramètres qualitatifs des mycorhizessont largement inconnus.Le criblage au champ de 53 variétés de blés anciens a montré des différences dans leuraptitude à développer des mycorhizes avec des champignons indigènes. Des plantesanalysées, seul cinq variétés étaient toutes mycorhizées au Tallage, alors que toutes l’étaientau stade Epiaison. Au stade Maturation des épis, dix-neuf variétés montraient une diminutionde la mycorhization.L’inoculation avec un inoculum de laboratoire lors de l’expérimentation en serre dansdes pots contenant d’une part leur terre habituelle de culture et de l’autre la terre d’Epoisses4montre, qu’ avec cet inoculum, toutes les variétés de blé se mycorhizent. Pour les variétéstestées, les variétés récentes utilisées en agriculture biologique mycorhizent mieux que lesanciennes, mais l’effet mycorhizien sur le rendement est observé uniquement chez desvariétés anciennes de blé. Démontrant ainsi un effet variétal sur le développement etl’expression de la symbiose. Les bénéfices de la symbiose sont plus accentués au niveau desphénomènes qualitatifs à savoir la viabilité des grains.L’apport d’un inoculum commercial lors d’expérimentation en serre dans des potcontenant le même sol, a modifié ces proportions. Cet inoculum a également permisl’amélioration du développement des blés et la qualité des graines de certaines variétésdémontrant à la fois l’importance du génome de la plante dans l’expression bénéfique de lasymbiose et de l’impossibilité des champignons mycorhizogènes indigènes à assurer ledéveloppement optimal de la symbiose. Au champ, l’effet variétal a été confirmé suite àl’apport d’un inoculum commercial ou, à l’exception d’une variété, l’inoculation a permis uneamélioration du rendement, particulièrement sensible chez la variété qui a été la plusproductive, soulignant l’intérêt qu’il y aurait à développer un projet de croisement pouraugmenter la réponse des blés aux mycorhizes. / Wheat (kind Tritucum aestivum, Poaceae family) is a very important cereal ofagronomic interest. Some very ancient varieties are set aside for recent varieties often selected to meet a consumer intensive cultivation of pesticides. Organic farming production system assuming a reduction of synthetic chemical inputs in order to preserve the ecosystem can be defined as a practice where the use of synthetic fertilizers, chemical pesticides and genetically modified organisms is prohibited. This practice is gaining more and more popularity and the amount of land cultivated in this way has increased by 60% between 2000 and 2004. Constraints associated with the production of organic grains include lower yields due to nutrient deficiencies in the soil and weed competition. During the past 90 years, the international efforts in wheat breeding have focused on increasing yield and quality parameters The establishment of a wheat database based on morphological, taxonomic and ecological criteria and the introduction of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM), known to help in the selection and induce an increase in yield and quality of production with a perspective to increase production in an agriculture that respects the environment, could be an integral part of an appropriate strategy. However, mycorrhizal effects on yield and quality of production are not always predictable and the mechanisms that regulate these qualitative parameters are largely unknown. Field screening of 53 ancient wheat varieties showed differences in their ability to interact with endogenous mycorrhizal fungi. Among the analysed plants, only five varieties were mycorrhized for all samples at tillering. All samples were mycorrhized at the heading stage for all varieties. Nineteen showed a decrease in the number of mycorrhized samples at the ears maturity. Inoculation with a laboratory inoculum during a greenhouse experiments in pots, containing either the wheat field soil or Ò EpoissesÓ soil, showed that all wheat varieties form mycorrhizal symbiosis. Between varieties tested, recent wheat varieties used in organic farming were better in forming symbiosis than the old, but the mycorrhizal effect on plant yield is seen only for old varieties. Demonstrating a variety effect on the development and 6 expression of symbiosis. The benefits of mycorrhizal symbiosis are more pronounced for the qualitative phenomena as the seed viability. The addition of a commercial inoculum in a similar greenhouse experiment modified these observations. This inoculum helped to improve wheat development but also the seed quality of some varieties, demonstrating both the importance of the plant genome in the beneficial expression of the symbiosis and the impossibility of indigenous mycorrhizal fungi to ensure optimal development of symbiosis. The previously observed field varietal effect was confirmed even after adding an exogenous inoculum as, excepted for one variety, inoculation has improved yield. This was especially noticeable in the variety that was most productive, stressing the importance to develop crossing strategies to increase the wheat response to mycorrhiza.

Accroître la diversité végétale au sein d'une culture par l'utilisation d'associations variétales est une stratégie qui permet de limiter la sévérité des maladies à dispersion éolienne. Les potentialités de cette pratique culturale restent à être caractérisées de manière précise dans le cas des maladies à dispersion pluviale, telle que la septoriose du blé durant sa phase épidémique. Cette maladie foliaire, due au champignon pathogène Mycosphaerella graminicola, est prédominante sur blé et est capable de causer des pertes substantielles de rendement, allant jusqu'à -40 %. Des expérimentations au champ ont été menées durant cinq années, de 2008 à 2012, sur le site INRA de Grignon (Yvelines, France), avec une association constituée de deux variétés de blé ayant des niveaux contrastés de résistance à M. graminicola, et dont les proportions étaient de une plante sensible pour trois assez résistantes. Par rapport à leur culture monovariétale respective, nous avons observé une diminution de la sévérité de la septoriose sur la plus sensible des variétés (en moyenne, 45 % de surface pycnidiale foliaire en moins sur les trois dernières feuilles), sans affecter significativement la variété plus résistante. Une méthodologie originale semi-automatisée a été développée pour quantifier le flux de spores dispersés par la pluie en conditions naturelles. Les mesures expérimentales ont permis de corréler l'intensité de plusieurs épisodes pluvieux avec la dispersion de spores au sein de différents couverts incluant des associations variétales. Un modèle mécaniste et stochastique a été développé afin de décrire la progression du potentiel de maladie au sein d'un couvert végétal hétérogène en trois dimensions. Cette approche théorique combine physique et épidémiologie, d'une part, (i) pour calculer l'interception des gouttes de pluie avec les organes végétaux et la trajectoire des gouttelettes d'éclaboussement au sein du couvert et, d'autre part, (ii) pour prendre en compte les niveaux de résistance variétale et la nature polycyclique de l'épidémie. À partir de ce modèle, il a été mis en évidence pour des associations de deux variétés que les proportions, ainsi que le différentiel de résistance entre les variétés à associer, pouvaient être optimisées pour réduire la sévérité de la maladie. Par ailleurs, ce modèle permet d'évaluer et d'identifier les distributions spatiales des variétés les plus propices à une réduction de la progression d'une maladie à dispersion pluviale. Parmi les précédents travaux traitant des potentialités des associations de variétés pour lutter contre des pathogènes dispersés par l'action mécanique de la pluie, certains avançaient des conclusions souvent contradictoires et peu en faveur de cette pratique. Nous avons montré ici qu'il est possible sous certaines conditions d'association de variétés (proportions, agencement spatial, différentiel de résistance globale) et de pluviométrie d'obtenir un effet significatif en termes de réduction de la maladie. / Increasing plant diversity within a crop by the use of cultivar mixtures is a strategy which allows to reduce severity of windborne diseases. Potentialities of this cropping practice have still to be precisely characterized in the case of rain-borne diseases, such as septoria tritici blotch during its spring epidemiological stage. This disease, due to the pathogen fungus Mycosphaerella graminicola, is prevalent on wheat crops and it may be result in substantial yield losses, up to -40%. Field experiments were carried out during five years, from 2008 to 2012, at the Grignon location (Yvelines, France), with a mixture consisting of two wheat cultivars with contrasted resistance to M. graminicola in a 1/3 susceptible/resistant ratio. In comparison with their pure stands, we observed a severity decrease of septoria tritici blotch for the most susceptible cultivar (on average, less 45% of leaf pycnidial leaf surface on the three upper leaf levels), without significantly affect the more resistant cultivar. An original semi-automated methodology was developed to quantify the splash-dispersed spore flux in outdoor conditions. Experimental measurements allowed to correlate intensity of several rainfall events with spore dispersal within different canopies including a cultivar mixture. A mechanistic and stochastic model was implemented in order to describe disease potential progression within a heterogeneous three-dimensional plant canopy. This theoretical approach combines physics and epidemiology in order to, on one hand, (i) compute interception of raindrops with plant organs and the pathway of splash droplets within the canopy and, on the other hand, (ii) take into account cultivar resistance levels and the polycyclism of epidemics. From this model, we highlighted for two-component cultivar mixtures that the proportions and the difference between resistance levels of cultivars to mix together could be optimized in order to reduce disease severity. Furthermore, this modelling approach makes it possible to assess and identify the cultivar spatial distributions the most favourable to a decrease of progression of a splash-dispered disease. Previous studies about potentialities of cultivar mixtures to control splash-dispersed pathogen agents, led in some cases to conclusions with inconsistent and not in favour of this cropping practice. We showed here that it was possible under certain cultivar designing conditions (proportions, spatial arrangement, difference between resistance levels) and rainfall properties to obtain a consistent significant effect in terms of disease reduction.

Accroître la biodiversité dans les agroécosystèmes est une stratégie écologique qui permettrait de rendre les productions plus durables. Une des pistes prometteuses est la culture en association de deux espèces sur une même parcelle et pendant une durée significative de leur cycle de développement. Ces cultures associées et notamment les mélanges céréalelégumineuse présentent de nombreux avantages, en particulier dans les systèmes à faible disponibilité en azote, en termes de production, de qualité et de bénéfices environnementaux. Ces performances sont étroitement liées à l’expression des complémentarités de niche et la réduction des effets de compétition entre les composantes de l’association. Les interactions interspécifiques dépendent fortement des caractéristiques phénotypiques (physiologie, morphologie, phénologie) des espèces et variétés associées. L’objectif de notre travail était d’étudier l’effet de la variabilité génotypique de espèces sur les performances des cultures associées de blé dur-légumineuse à graine et d’analyser le comportement des cultivars vis-à-vis des interactions inter et intra-spécifiques. Pour cela, nous avons mis en place deux expérimentations de 2011 à 2013 afin de tester plusieurs combinaisons de variétés présentant des traits phénotypiques différents. Chaque variété a été semée en culture pure en densité normale et en demi-densité (afin d’étudier les interactions intra-spécifiques) et en association de type substitutive (les deux espèces sont semées en demi densité et en mélange sur le rang) afin d’étudier les interactions interspécifiques. Nos résultats ont confirmé que le comportement d’un génotype est variable entre culture pure et association et que la performance d’une espèce en association dépendrait de sa performance en culture pure mais aussi de sa compétitivité. Ce pouvoir compétitif est sensible aux traits phénotypiques de chaque espèce et à la variation des conditions pédoclimatiques. Une analyse de la dynamique des interactions interspécifiques montre qu’à partir de la période de floraison des légumineuses, les compétitions deviendraient plus intenses et pourraient influencer les rendements en grains. In fine, ce travail nous a permis d’identifier des traits marqueurs de la performance des légumineuses en association qui serviront à concevoir des idéotypes adaptés aux couverts plurispécifiques afin d’optimiser les services rendus par ces systèmes cultivés. / Increasing biodiversity in agroecosystems may contribute to a sustainable productions. Intercropping, the growth of two or more species in the same space at the same time, is considered as a practical application of ecological principles based on biodiversity. Grain legume-cereal intercropping reveals many potential advantages in productivity, stability of outputs and ecological sustainability particularly in low N-input systems. These advantages occur when intercrop components have a complementary ecological niches and competitive interaction are reduced. Interspecific interactions are greatly influenced by phenotypic traits (physiological, morphological and phenological) among cultivars and species. The aim of our study is to study the effect of genotypic variability of species on the performance of durum wheat-grain legume intercrops and to analyze the response of cultivars toward inter and intraspecific interactions. An experimental trial was carried out during two years (2011 to 2013) to test different cultivar combinations. Each cultivar and specie was cultivated as sole crop, half density sole crop and intercrop in a replacement design to evaluate inter- and intra-specific interactions. Our results confirmed that genotype behavior is different between sole crop and intercropping. The intercrop performance is dependent on its performance on sole crop and on its competitiveness. Phenotypic traits and pedoclimatic conditions influence the competitive ability of intercrops. Besides, a dynamic analysis of interspecific interactions shows that from the legumes flowering period, competitions would be the most intense and would impact the grain yield. Finally, this study has allowed to identify some indicators of the performance of grain legumes on intercropping that would help to concept ideotypes adapted to multispecies systems in order to optimize their advantages.

Plants are able to cope with changing environmental conditions or withstand its adverse effects due to their plastic development. One way to adapt to fluctuating amounts of nutrients and water in the environment or the presence of toxic substances is to regulate the movement of substances between the plant and the environment. Beside other, this regulation is also possible at the level of the root system, by the formation of apoplastic barriers endodermis and exodermis. Some species posses endodermis only, in others exodermis in hypodrermal layers of the root can be found. These barriers differentiate in three stages and prevent free movement of coumpounds though apoplast. The transport to the symplast is the key point of regulating the uptake of substances into the plant and the endodermis is the fundamental structure. The presence of exodermis, however, affects the apoplast permeability of the surface root layers and can therefore influence the involvement of the primary cortex cells in the uptake of substances from the environment. In this work the impact of phosphate deficiency on the formation of apoplastic barriers was studied focusing on exodermis and the effect of its differentiation on the occurrence of membrane transporters and involvement of primary cortex cells in the uptake of...

Quizalofop and florpyrauxifen-benzyl are both new herbicides for rice in the midsouthern U.S. Quizalofop is only effective for control of monocot weed species; therefore, mixtures of florpyrauxifen-benzyl with quizalofop could be beneficial in acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACCase)-resistant rice. Field experiments were conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS, in 2017 and 2018 to evaluate control of monocot and dicot weed species with sequential applications of quizalofop including auxinic herbicides in the first or second treatment. Other field experiments in 2017 and 2018 evaluated sequential applications of different rates of quizalofop with florpyrauxifen-benzyl included in treatments immediately prior to flooding. A final field experiment in 2017 and 2018 evaluated growth and yield of six ACCase-resistant rice cultivars and advanced lines following POST applications of florpyrauxifen-benzyl.

Sour rot of tomatoes, caused by Geotrichum candidum, occurs in the field and postharvest settings regularly, although postharvest losses are severe only in some years on the Eastern Shore of Virginia (ESV) and other tomato production regions. Fungicide products and cultural control methods are tested for efficacy utilizing a traditional wounding technique that does not properly reflect natural sour rot infections. A new inoculation technique was optimized for G. candidum using negative pressure to infiltrate the tomato stem scar with pathogenic spores. This new method creates consistently high rates of infection and more successfully creates infections in mature green and breaker fruit. The population of G. candidum on the Eastern Shore of VA (ESV) was characterized using multilocus sequencing technique. The resulting phylogenetic tree defines four distinct groups, including two with uncommon loci that distinguish them from the majority of the population. Thirty-seven G. candidum isolates were inoculated to media amended with ten fungicides and antimicrobial compounds commonly used in tomato production and postharvest treatments. Propiconazole and tebuconazole completely inhibited growth of all colonies. Cultivar trials were conducted to determine if resistance or tolerance to G. candidum occurs. Ten commonly grown round and Roma cultivars on the ESV were similarly susceptible to G. candidum, even at low inoculum levels. Field and postharvest surveys of sour rot on tomato fruit attempted to correlate disease incidence with weather conditions in order to better understand the cause of sporadic infection. Few patterns were seen consistently throughout harvest periods and years. Rainfall was positively correlated with disease 2-3 days before surveys and temperature was negatively correlated with disease 5-7 days before surveys. No in-field weather conditions were correlated with postharvest disease incidence. Greenhouse trials were conducted to assess the influence of water congested tomato fruit on susceptibility to sour rot. Tomato plants were exposed to water inundation to mimic rainfall and varying levels of irrigation, both in order to congest tomato fruit. Though water congestion was achieved, tomato fruit were equally susceptible to sour rot infections. / Ph. D.

Le cadmium (Cd) est naturellement présent dans les sols qui sont aussi enrichis par l'activité humaine. Le Cd contamine les produits végétaux alimentaires car il est absorbé par les racines des plantes. Elément toxique pour les organismes vivants, les concentrations dans les produits consommés sont soumises aux règlementations pour l’alimentation humaine et animale. Il est donc nécessaire de comprendre le transfert sol-organe consommé du Cd, spécialement pour le tournesol (Helianthus annuus L.), notre plante modèle, pouvant accumuler plus de Cd que d’autre plantes cultivées. Ce travail a testé l'hypothèse que la quantité de Cd absorbée par le système racinaire du tournesol était liée à l'architecture de ce dernier. Nous avons caractérisé au niveau des racines individuelles une variation longitudinale de l’influx d'absorption du Cd2+ en lien avec le milieu de culture, l'ordre et l'âge des racines. Ces variations ont été attribuées à la dynamique de développement des barrières apoplasmiques (dépôts de cellulose lignine et subérine) qui limitent l'internalisation du Cd2+ dans le cytoplasme cellulaire. Par simulation, il a été montré que ces variations pouvaient théoriquement impacter l'absorption totale de Cd2+ en fonction de l'architecture racinaire en hydroponie mais beaucoup moins sur substrat solide (sable). En outre, une comparaison de 14 cultivars de tournesol cultivé en hydroponie a montré que la variabilité des teneurs en Cd dans les parties aériennes était plutôt liée à des différences d'absorption indépendantes de l'architecture racinaire et à des variations de répartition dans la plante. Les variations longitudinales d'absorption du Cd peuvent alors être considérées comme mineures face à des variations inter-cultivars dont l'origine reste à élucider. Dans une optique de modélisation du prélèvement total en conditions de sol, il serait alors possible de ne considérer qu’un influx moyen de Cd pour la totalité du système racinaire indépendamment de son architecture / Cadmium (Cd) is naturally occurring in soils that are also enriched by human activity. Cd contaminates food crops because of its absorption by plant roots. Because it is a toxic element for living organisms, its concentrations in food and feed plant products are subjected to regulatory limits. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the transfer of this metal from the soil to the edible plant part, especially for sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), our model plant that can accumulate more Cd than other crop species. This study tested the hypothesis that the amount of Cd absorbed by sunflower was related to the root architecture. We characterized, at the individual roots level, a longitudinal variation of the influx of Cd2+ absorption in relation with the culture medium, the order and the age of roots. These variations were attributed to the development of apoplastic barriers (cellulose, lignin and suberin deposition) that restrict the absorption of Cd2+ into the cytosol. By simulation, it has been shown that these variations could theoritically impact the total absorption of Cd2+ in hydroponics depending on the root architecture while in solid substrate (sand) the impact was much more limited. Furthermore, a comparison of 14 sunflower cultivars showed that the variability in Cd concentrations in shoots was rather due to differences in absorption independent of root architecture and in variations in the root to shoot distribution. The longitudinal variation in the Cd root influx can then be considered of minor importance compared to the between cultivar variability in Cd uptake, the origin of which remains to be determined. In the perspective of modelling the total uptake of Cd in soil conditions, it could then be possible to assume a global mean influx of Cd independent of the root architecture

O aumento do comércio e a facilidade de trânsito de informações entre os países no mundo, e o conseqüente crescimento da complexidade das relações entre Estados, seus jurisdicionados e empresas multinacionais, considerando-se principalmente o fluxo de capitais e transferência de tecnologia, geraram a necessidade de regulamentação destas relações, de modo que sejam conferidas segurança e confiabilidade nas transações nacionais e internacionais. O comércio de cultivares transgênicas, ou seja, plantas que possuem alguma alteração genética, de modo que adquiram características específicas de interesse dos produtores, envolve diversos aspectos que geram polêmica em múltiplos setores da sociedade mundial. Entre estes aspectos, está o relacionado à propriedade da tecnologia inserida nas plantas. Para a regulamentação da propriedade intelectual relacionada a cultivares, foi fundada a UPOV União para Proteção de Variedades Vegetais, em língua portuguesa , uma organização internacional que estabeleceu o sistema para regulamentação de propriedade de cultivares mais difundido no mundo hoje em dia, e que, ao longo de sua existência, elaborou três versões distintas subseqüentes de texto para a normatização do tema. Ocorre que o sistema da UPOV tem hoje duas versões diversas vigentes a versão de 1978 e a de 1991, concomitantemente, em países com perfis e interesses diferentes, para não se dizer contrastantes. Nesse contexto, diversas são as discussões sobre a sua efetividade como sistema de proteção de propriedade intelectual, considerando sua abrangência e exceções, gerando inclusive debates perante o Conselho para o TRIPS, na Organização Mundial do Comércio OMC. O presente trabalho discorre sobre as regras da UPOV, em ambas as versões, analisadas individual e comparativamente, abordando também seus paralelos com o artigo 27.3 (b) do TRIPS, que regulamenta direitos de propriedade intelectual naquele diploma. Ainda é analisada a legislação brasileira sobre cultivares, e o processo de ingresso do país na UPOV. Também são discutidas regras de direito internacional público e privado, e de tratados sobre comércio internacional e relações entre países, bem como regras sobre vigência de tratados perante leis nacionais, e conflitos de normas no plano nacional e internacional. O principal objetivo do trabalho é estabelecer regras claras sobre a formação das obrigações, sejam direitos a cobrança de royalties ou de recebimento de indenização, relacionadas a cultivares transgênicas, no plano nacional e internacional, de modo que fique claro quando, onde e em qual circunstâncias surge ou não a obrigação de remuneração pela utilização de cultivares transgênicas. / La crescita del commercio e il conseguente maggior scambio dinformazioni tra i paesi del mondo hanno inevitabilmente aumentato il già lungo elenco di problemi nelle relazioni tra Stati, cittadini e società multinazionali. Il flusso di grandi capitali e lo sviluppo della tecnologia hanno generato un bisogno di razionalizzare questi rapporti, con lobiettivo di dare sicurezza e attendibilità alle transazioni nazionali e internazionali. Il commercio di OGM (prodotti agricoli geneticamente modificati in modo da avere le caratteristiche specifiche dinteresse dei produttori) coinvolge vari aspetti, molti dei quali generano polemiche nei vari settori della società mondiale. Tra questi, quello relativo alla proprietà della tecnologia inserita nei prodotti. Per regolare la proprietà intellettuale relativa agli OGM è stata fondata unorganizzazione internazionale, lUPOV (in portoghese, lUnione per la Protezione della Varietà dei Vegetali) che ha stabilito il sistema per il regolamento di proprietà degli OGM più diffuso nel mondo. Nel tempo ha elaborato tre versioni successive e distinte per la regolazione del prodotto. A oggi due di queste, una del 1978 e una del 1991, valgono simultaneamente, in paesi con profili e interessi diversi e a volte anche contrastanti. In questo contesto ci sono diverse discussioni sulla sua efficacia di protezione della proprietà intellettuale e ci sono continui dibattiti presso il Consiglio per il TRIPS (Accordo sui diritti di Proprietà Intellettuale relativi al commercio) nell\'Organizzazione Mondiale del Commercio (OMC). In particolare alcune regole dell\'UPOV, in entrambe le versioni, vengono analizzate, individualmente e comparativamente, in parallelo con l\'articolo 27.3 (b) del TRIPS, quello relativo ai diritti di proprietà intellettuale in quella legge. Nondimeno è analizzata la sua legislazione brasiliana e lingresso del paese nell\'UPOV. Sono inoltre discusse delle regole di diritto internazionale, pubblico e privato, e dei trattati del commercio internazionale e delle relazioni tra i paesi. Sono poi considerate le regole dei trattati in relazione alle leggi nazionali, dei conflitti di norme in ambito nazionale e internazionale. Lobiettivo principale del lavoro è stabilire regole chiare sulla formazione degli obblighi, siano di diritti di compenso per royalties o di indennità, riguardo gli OGM, in ambito nazionale e internazionale, in modo che sia chiaro quando, dove e come debba sorgere, o meno, l\'obbligo di retribuzione per il suo utilizzo.

O presente experimento foi conduzido no Departamento de Produção Animal da ESALQ/USP, em Piracicaba (SP), entre 15/12/98 e 04/07/99. Os tratamentos foram constituídos pelas combinações entre três cultivares de Cynodon spp. (Tifton-85, Florakirk e Coastcross) e quatro alturas de pasto (5, 10, 15 e 20 cm) mantidas por pastejo de ovinos em regime de lotação contínua e taxa de lotação variável. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos completos casualizados em arranjo de parcelas subdivididas com quatro repetições. As parcelas corresponderam aos cultivares e as subparcelas (unidades experimentais) às alturas de pasto. Foram analisadas as seguintes variáveis: biomassa na área total, densidade populacional de perfilhos, massa por perfilho, massa de folha por perfilho e área foliar por perfilho. A partir dessas medições foram realizados cálculos de índice de área foliar do pasto (IAF), volume por perfilho, relação folha:haste por perfilho e relação área foliar:volume por perfilho (R). O mecanismo de compensação tamanho/densidade populacional de perfilhos operou em pastagens de Cynodon spp.. No entanto, as inclinações das retas foram consistentemente maiores que a proposição teórica de 3/2. Perfilhos individuais de Cynodon spp. apresentaram um padrão de crescimento isométrico e parecem agruparse em clones para assegurar estratégia competitiva e otimização de IAF. Pastos mantidos a 5 cm durante o outono apresentaram densidades populacionais reduzidas, indicando um padrão de tolerância ao pastejo dependente da época do ano. Tifton-85 e Coastcross apresentaram uma capacidade de aumento em biomassa que pode ir além da altura de 20 cm, enquanto que para o cultivar Florakirk essa capacidade situou-se em torno de 20 cm. O estádio reprodutivo das plantas interferiu de forma significativa nos processos de competição intra-específica e dinâmica populacional de perfilhos. / The experiment was conducted at the Department of Animal Production, ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba (SP), from 15/12/98 until 04/07/99. Treatments were combinations of three Cynodon spp. cultivars (Tifton-85, Florakirk and Coastcross) and four sward surface heights (SSH) (5, 10, 15 and 20 cm) maintained by sheep under continuous stocking and variable stocking rate. A complete randomised block design was used, with treatments arranged in split-plot and replicated four times. Grass cultivars were assigned to plots and SSH to sub-plots. Pastures responses evaluated were: total biomass above ground level, tiller population density, tiller weight, leaf mass and leaf area per tiller. From these measurements calculations of sward leaf area index (LAI), tiller volume, tiller leaf:stem ratio and tiller leaf area:volume ratio (R) were derived. A tiller size/population density mechanism operated in Cynodon spp. However, a slope steeper than the theoretical expectation of 3/2 was observed. Individual tillers presented an isometric pattern of growth and seemed to demonstrate a clonal integration among tillers in order to enhance competitive ability and optimise LAI. Swards maintained at 5 cm during autumn presented reduced tiller population densities, indicating a pattern of grazing tolerance dependent of time of the year. Tifton-85 and Coastcross pastures showed a capacity to increase total biomass that could go beyond 20 cm, while Florakirk stabilised around that SSH. Reproductive development of plants interfered with the processes related to intra-specific competition and tiller population dynamics.