Leishmania é um protozoário parasito flagelado responsável pela Leishmaniose, doença que afeta 88 países, distribuídos em 4 continentes, e que causa um risco a aproximadamente 350 milhões de pessoas. Estudos recentes em tripanosomatídeos, utilizando Trypanosoma brucei como modelo, sugerem que as enzimas fumarato hidratase, enzimas que catalisam a hidratação reversível da molécula de fumarato em S-malato, são essenciais para sobrevivência de tripanossomatídeos. O presente projeto visou a clonagem, expressão, purificação e caracterização cinética e biofísica da enzima fumarato hidratase codificada pelo gene LmjF24.0320 de Leishmania major. A proteína foi expressa em bactéria e purificada por cromatografia de afinidade. Os ensaios de cinética enzimática mostram que a enzima segue o modelo de cinética de Michaelis-Menten com Km e Vmax de 2,7 ± 0,5 mM e 35,2 ± 5,8 micromol/min/mg para fumarato e 5,2 ± 0,4 mM e 11,8 ± 0,6 micromol/min/mg para S-malato, respectivamente. Para os estudos de localização celular foram produzidos e purificados anticorpos policlonais para as isoformas LmFH-1 e LmFH-2 de Leishmania major através de imunização de coelhos. A combinação de técnicas de imunofluorescência por microscopia confocal, western blotting e controle da atividade enzimática através fracionamento celular com digitonina nos permitiu concluir que a isoforma LmFH-1 se encontra localizada na mitocôndria do parasito, enquanto que a isoforma LmFH-2 possue dupla localização, sendo encontrada tanto no citosol quanto no glicossomo. A presença das isoformas LmFH-1 e LmFH-2 nos três compartimentos celulares: citosol, glicossomo e mitocôndria reforçam a importância da molécula de fumarato em diferentes processos celulares, e fortalecem a idéia de que a enzima fumarato hidratase pode ser considerada um potencial alvo para planejamento de fármacos anti-leishmaniose. / Leishmania parasites are the casual agent of leishamaniasis, a group of disease that affects 88 countries, distributed in four continents, with 350 million people at risk of infection. Recent studies in trypanosomatids, using Trypanosoma brucei as a model suggest that the fumarate hydratase enzymes, which catalyze the stereospecific hydration of fumatare to malate, are essential for trypanosomatid survival. The present project focused the cloning, expression, purification and both kinetic and biophysical characterization of fumarate hydratase encoded by gene LmjF24.0320 of Leishmania major. The protein has been expressed in bacteria and purified by affinity chromatography. The kinetic experiments reveal that the enzyme follow the Michaelis-Menten classic model with Km and Vmax of 2,7 ± 0,5 mM and 35,2 ± 5,8 micromol/min/mg for fumarate and 5,2 ± 0,4 mM and 11,8 ± 0,6 micromol/min/mg for S-malate, respectively. For the subcellular localization studies, polyclonal antisera against both isoforms LmFH-1 e LmFH-2 of Leishmania major were obtained after immunization of rabbits. The combination of confocal microscopy, western blotting and enzymatic activity through cell fractionation by selective permeabilization of membranes with digitonin suggest that LmFH-1 isoform is localized to mitochondria, while the LmFH-2 isoform is found to both cytosol and glycossome. The presence of LmFH-1 and LmFH-2 isoforms at the three cell compartments: cytosol, glycosome and mitochondria strongly supports the premise that fumarate is important for many cell processes and suggests that fumarate hydratase enzyme can be considered an attractive target for the development of anti-leishmaniasis drugs.

Salicylic Acid Binding Protein 2 (SABP2) is a 29kDa protein present in extremely low amounts in tobacco leaves. SABP2 processes the mobile defense signal, methyl salicylic acid generated in plants resisting microbial infection. The precise localization of SABP2 in plants is not known. SABP2 has not been shown to have any targeting signal peptides. This study was designed to determine localization of SABP2 in tobacco plants. Biochemical and immunological studies using antibodies against SABP2 suggest that it is localized to the chloroplast, associating with chloroplast envelope membranes. Chloroplast import assays confirm that SABP2 is associated with the chloroplast envelope membrane. Solubilization and analysis of chloroplast membrane proteins show that imported SABP2 associates with the chloroplast envelope membrane by weak hydrophobic and/or ionic interactions. Cellular localization and understanding mechanisms of SABP2 import to the chloroplast will be important from a metabolic engineering standpoint to enhance plant natural defense against microbial pathogens.

Les papillomavirus sont de petits virus à ADN double brin qui infectent les cellules de l’épithélium de la peau et des muqueuses d’une variété de vertébrés causant des lésions bénignes telles des verrues. Certains de ces virus sont également associés au développement de lésions malignes, notamment le cancer du col utérin. La protéine régulatrice E2 des papillomavirus est impliquée dans diverses fonctions contribuant à l’établissement de l’infection par ces virus. Entre autre, E2 régule la transcription des gènes viraux, participe à l’initiation de la réplication de l’ADN viral en s’associant à l’hélicase virale E1 et est responsable du maintien et de la ségrégation de l’épisome viral au cours de la division cellulaire. Toutes ces activités sont attribuables à la capacité de E2 à s’associer au génome viral et à interagir avec des protéines virales et cellulaires. De plus, ces fonctions sont elles-mêmes régulées par des modifications post-traductionnelles de la protéine E2. Plusieurs études ont été réalisées afin de découvrir les mécanismes de régulation des fonctions de E2 mais le rôle exact des différents domaines de E2 dans ces contrôles reste à être défini. En premier lieu, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’interaction entre E2 et Brd4(L) qui avait été définie comme étant essentielle à la ségrégation de l’épisome. Plusieurs caractéristiques associées à la protéine Brd4(L) telles que sa capacité à lier les lysines acétylées des histones, son interaction avec le complexe Mediator et sa participation à l’activation de la transcription en formant un complexe avec pTEFb, nous ont permis d’émettre l’hypothèse que l’interaction E2-Brd4(L) est nécessaire à l’activité transcriptionnelle de E2. Nous avons démontré que la protéine Brd4(L) interagit avec le domaine de transactivation de E2 de divers types de papillomavirus. De plus, cette interaction implique les résidus de E2 essentiels à son activité transcriptionnelle. Ainsi, ces résultats proposent que l’association E2-Brd4(L) serve à la régulation de la transcription des gènes viraux. Dans un second temps, nos recherches se sont concentrées sur l’existence d’une interface de dimérisation au sein du domaine de transactivation de E2 et de son implication dans les activités transcriptionnelles et réplicatives de la protéine. Nos études ont aussi mis en évidence que l’intégrité de la structure de ce domaine contribue au bon fonctionnement de la réplication du génome viral. Cette découverte suggère que la dimérisation de E2 peut réguler l’initiation de la réplication et propose l’existence d’un niveau de régulation additionnel impliquant l’état de la structure quaternaire de la protéine E2 et une modulation de l’interaction entre E1 et E2 à cette étape du cycle viral. Finalement, l’étude de l’instabilité de la protéine E2 nous a permis de définir une région importante dans le domaine flexible de la protéine, nécessaire à sa dégradation par le protéasome. De plus, la présence de résidus conservés localisés dans ce domaine, sont associés à la dégradation et portent la signature d’un signal de localisation nucléaire de type PY-NLS, suggérant que la stabilité de la protéine E2 est régulée par sa localisation au sein de la cellule. Ces études démontrent l’existence de nouvelles stratégies de régulation des activités transcriptionnelle et réplicative de la protéine E2 des papillomavirus. La compréhension de ces mécanismes nous permet de mieux cerner les étapes favorisant l’établissement et la progression du cycle viral et d’identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques contre les infections aux papillomavirus. / Papillomaviridae is a family of small double-stranded DNA viruses known as papillomaviruses (PV) which infect skin and mucosal epithelial cells where they cause benign lesions such as warts. A subset of these viruses is associated with the development of malignant lesions and is the causal agent of cervical cancer. Papillomavirus E2 regulatory protein is involved in several functions leading to the establishment of the viral infection. These activities include the regulation of viral genes transcription, it participation to the initiation of viral DNA replication by recruiting the viral helicase E1, and to the maintenance and segregation of the viral episome during cellular division. All these functions are associated to the ability of E2 to bind specifically the viral genome, to interact with viral and cellular proteins and to acquire post-translational modifications. The first article of this thesis led to the identification of Brd4(L) as the major protein associated to E2 protein of different papillomavirus types. This interaction involves the amino acids associate to the transcription function of E2. The protein Brd4(L) was identified originally as a factor that maintains epigenetic memory by it interaction with acetylated histones during mitosis. This association with the chromatin, it interaction with Mediator complex and it participation to the cellular transcription by recruiting pTEFb complex allowed us to propose that the interaction between Brd4 and E2 is essential to the regulation of viral gene transcription. The second part of this work based on previous characterization of the transactivation domain dimerization interface; investigate the role of this surface in the transcriptional and replicative activities of E2. Our studies demonstrated that the integrity of the TAD dimerization interface may contribute to the DNA replication activity of E2. This discovery suggests that the dimerization interface may regulate the viral DNA replication by the redox state of the E2 protein. A fine characterization of this interface may provide new aspect of the interaction between E1 and E2 in the context of viral cycle. Finally, the third section of this thesis define a region of E2 protein associated to it degradation by the proteasome. This study also demonstrates that the stability of E2 is related to its cellular localization and suggests that the highly conserved residues found in this region may represent a PY-NLS nuclear localization signal signature. This thesis shows the existence of different approaches to regulate the transcriptional and the replicative activities as well as the stability of the papillomavirus E2 protein to favor the establishment and the progression of viral cycle.

Les papillomavirus sont de petits virus à ADN double brin qui infectent les cellules de l’épithélium de la peau et des muqueuses d’une variété de vertébrés causant des lésions bénignes telles des verrues. Certains de ces virus sont également associés au développement de lésions malignes, notamment le cancer du col utérin. La protéine régulatrice E2 des papillomavirus est impliquée dans diverses fonctions contribuant à l’établissement de l’infection par ces virus. Entre autre, E2 régule la transcription des gènes viraux, participe à l’initiation de la réplication de l’ADN viral en s’associant à l’hélicase virale E1 et est responsable du maintien et de la ségrégation de l’épisome viral au cours de la division cellulaire. Toutes ces activités sont attribuables à la capacité de E2 à s’associer au génome viral et à interagir avec des protéines virales et cellulaires. De plus, ces fonctions sont elles-mêmes régulées par des modifications post-traductionnelles de la protéine E2. Plusieurs études ont été réalisées afin de découvrir les mécanismes de régulation des fonctions de E2 mais le rôle exact des différents domaines de E2 dans ces contrôles reste à être défini. En premier lieu, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’interaction entre E2 et Brd4(L) qui avait été définie comme étant essentielle à la ségrégation de l’épisome. Plusieurs caractéristiques associées à la protéine Brd4(L) telles que sa capacité à lier les lysines acétylées des histones, son interaction avec le complexe Mediator et sa participation à l’activation de la transcription en formant un complexe avec pTEFb, nous ont permis d’émettre l’hypothèse que l’interaction E2-Brd4(L) est nécessaire à l’activité transcriptionnelle de E2. Nous avons démontré que la protéine Brd4(L) interagit avec le domaine de transactivation de E2 de divers types de papillomavirus. De plus, cette interaction implique les résidus de E2 essentiels à son activité transcriptionnelle. Ainsi, ces résultats proposent que l’association E2-Brd4(L) serve à la régulation de la transcription des gènes viraux. Dans un second temps, nos recherches se sont concentrées sur l’existence d’une interface de dimérisation au sein du domaine de transactivation de E2 et de son implication dans les activités transcriptionnelles et réplicatives de la protéine. Nos études ont aussi mis en évidence que l’intégrité de la structure de ce domaine contribue au bon fonctionnement de la réplication du génome viral. Cette découverte suggère que la dimérisation de E2 peut réguler l’initiation de la réplication et propose l’existence d’un niveau de régulation additionnel impliquant l’état de la structure quaternaire de la protéine E2 et une modulation de l’interaction entre E1 et E2 à cette étape du cycle viral. Finalement, l’étude de l’instabilité de la protéine E2 nous a permis de définir une région importante dans le domaine flexible de la protéine, nécessaire à sa dégradation par le protéasome. De plus, la présence de résidus conservés localisés dans ce domaine, sont associés à la dégradation et portent la signature d’un signal de localisation nucléaire de type PY-NLS, suggérant que la stabilité de la protéine E2 est régulée par sa localisation au sein de la cellule. Ces études démontrent l’existence de nouvelles stratégies de régulation des activités transcriptionnelle et réplicative de la protéine E2 des papillomavirus. La compréhension de ces mécanismes nous permet de mieux cerner les étapes favorisant l’établissement et la progression du cycle viral et d’identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques contre les infections aux papillomavirus. / Papillomaviridae is a family of small double-stranded DNA viruses known as papillomaviruses (PV) which infect skin and mucosal epithelial cells where they cause benign lesions such as warts. A subset of these viruses is associated with the development of malignant lesions and is the causal agent of cervical cancer. Papillomavirus E2 regulatory protein is involved in several functions leading to the establishment of the viral infection. These activities include the regulation of viral genes transcription, it participation to the initiation of viral DNA replication by recruiting the viral helicase E1, and to the maintenance and segregation of the viral episome during cellular division. All these functions are associated to the ability of E2 to bind specifically the viral genome, to interact with viral and cellular proteins and to acquire post-translational modifications. The first article of this thesis led to the identification of Brd4(L) as the major protein associated to E2 protein of different papillomavirus types. This interaction involves the amino acids associate to the transcription function of E2. The protein Brd4(L) was identified originally as a factor that maintains epigenetic memory by it interaction with acetylated histones during mitosis. This association with the chromatin, it interaction with Mediator complex and it participation to the cellular transcription by recruiting pTEFb complex allowed us to propose that the interaction between Brd4 and E2 is essential to the regulation of viral gene transcription. The second part of this work based on previous characterization of the transactivation domain dimerization interface; investigate the role of this surface in the transcriptional and replicative activities of E2. Our studies demonstrated that the integrity of the TAD dimerization interface may contribute to the DNA replication activity of E2. This discovery suggests that the dimerization interface may regulate the viral DNA replication by the redox state of the E2 protein. A fine characterization of this interface may provide new aspect of the interaction between E1 and E2 in the context of viral cycle. Finally, the third section of this thesis define a region of E2 protein associated to it degradation by the proteasome. This study also demonstrates that the stability of E2 is related to its cellular localization and suggests that the highly conserved residues found in this region may represent a PY-NLS nuclear localization signal signature. This thesis shows the existence of different approaches to regulate the transcriptional and the replicative activities as well as the stability of the papillomavirus E2 protein to favor the establishment and the progression of viral cycle.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:10:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Wesley de Almeida Brito.pdf: 6161747 bytes, checksum: 6249a08f73180f831c2df168246efa67 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-11-18 / Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a thermal-dimorphic fungus, the causative agent of Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), an important endemic mycosis in Latin America. A protein species preferentially expressed in yeast cells with a molecular mass of 80kDa and isoeletric point (pI) of 7.79 was isolated from the proteome of P. brasiliensis and characterized as an aconitase (E.C. 4.2.1.3). Aconitase is an enzyme that catalyzes the isomerization of citrate to isocitrate in both the Krebs cycle (KC) and the glyoxylate cycle (GC). We report the cloning and characterization of the cDNA encoding the aconitase of P. brasiliensis (PbACO). The cDNA showed a 2337 bp open reading frame (ORF) and encoded a predicted protein with 779 amino acids. A polyclonal antibody against the purified recombinant PbACO was obtained in order to analyze the subcellular localization of the molecule in P. brasiliensis. The protein is present in the extracellular fluid, cell wall, mitochondria, cytosol and peroxisomes of yeast cells as demonstrated by western blot and immunocytochemistry analysis. The expression analysis of the Pbaco gene was performed through quantitative real time RT-PCR and results demonstrated increasing expression during differentiation from mycelium to yeast cells. Real time RT-PCR assays was also used to evaluate the Pbaco expression when the fungus grows on media with acetate and ethanol as sole carbon sources and in different iron levels. The results demonstrated that Pbaco transcript is over expressed in acetate and ethanol as sole carbon sources and in highiron conditions. / Paracoccidioides brasiliensis é um fungo termodimórfico, agente causador de uma importante micose sistêmica na América Latina, a paracoccidioidomicose (PCM). Uma proteína apresentando massa molecular de 80kDa e ponto isoelétrico (pI) de 7,79, preferencialmente expressa em células leveduriformes, foi isolada do proteoma de P. brasiliensis e caracterizada como uma aconitase (EC 4.2.1.3). Aconitase é uma enzima que catalisa a isomerização do citrato em isocitrato tanto no ciclo de Krebs (CK) quanto no ciclo glioxalato (CG). No presente estudo reportamos a clonagem e caracterização do cDNA da aconitase de P. brasiliensis (PbACO). O cDNA apresentou um quadro aberto de leitura (ORF) com 2337 pares de bases, codificando uma predita proteína com 779 resíduos de aminoácidos. Objetivando a localização da aconitase de P. brasiliensis foi produzida e purificada uma proteína recombinante a qual foi utilizada para a produção de um anticorpo policlonal anti-PbACO. A proteína foi localizada no fluído extracelular, parede celular, mitocôndria, citosol e nos peroxissomos de células leveduriformes, como demonstrado por ensaios de Western blotting e por imunocitoquímica. A análise da expressão do gene Pbaco foi realizada através RT-PCR em tempo real e os resultados demonstraram um aumento da expressão durante a diferenciação celular de micélio para levedura. A expressão Pbaco também foi avaliada quando o fungo é cultivado em meios de cultura contendo acetato e etanol como única fonte de carbono bem como em diferentes concentrações de ferro. Os resultados demonstraram que o transcrito de Pbaco é mais expresso em acetato e etanol como única fonte de carbono e em altas concentrações de ferro.

Please find the referenced videos attached / The physical ends of eukaryotic chromosomes consist of repetitive DNA sequences, which are associated with specialized proteins forming a nucleoprotein structure essential for the integrity of the linear chromosomes, and are known as telomeres. Telomerase is an enzyme responsible for the maintenance of the telomeric repeats at the end of the chromosomes. Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein, which contains a catalytic subunit that possesses reverse transcriptase activity, and a RNA subunit that acts as a template, since it possess the telomeric repeat sequences necessary to amplify telomere ends. Telomeres are transcribed in most eukaryotes into a non-coding RNA know as TERRA (Telomeric repeats-containing RNA). It has been proposed that TERRA may act as a regulator of telomere homeostasis, and as an inhibitor of telomerase, however, its specific function is still unknown. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, TERRA is rapidly degraded by the 5’-3’ Rat1 exonuclease, which has hampered its study by classic biochemical experiments in yeast. In this thesis, we report the use of cytological approaches to study TERRA in budding yeast. Two different approaches were used for this purpose: the fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH) and the labeling of TERRA by the MS2-GFP system, which allow the visualization of TERRA transcripts form a single telomere in living cells. With these two approaches, we observed that TERRA is expressed from a single telomere and accumulates as a single perinuclear foci, in a small percentage of cells population. We also demonstrate that TERRA expression occurs due to telomere shortening. We demonstrate that TERRA interacts in vivo with the telomerase RNA (TLC1) in yeast. Telomere elongation depends on the action of several telomerase molecules that are visible as clusters, which associate with telomeres in late S phase in yeast, and mammalian cells. In adidition, we show that TERRA stimulates the nucleation of telomerase clusters. By performing time course experiments of TERRA and TLC1 RNA in live cells, we observed that TERRA acts as a scaffold for generating telomerase clusters, which are then recruited in late S phase to the telomere from which TERRA molecules originated. The recruitment of TERRA to its telomere of origin is dependent on factors that control telomerase recruitment at telomeres like: Mre11, Tel1 and the yKu complex. We propose that a short telomere expresses TERRA to assemble and organize telomerase molecules, which later on allows their recruitment at the short telomere, where elongation is needed. Finally we showed an up-regulation of TERRA, and telomerase RNA TLC1, accompanied by a predominant cytoplasmic localization as cell growth progresses from exponential growth to diauxic shift, and stationary phase. In these conditions, TERRA foci co-localize with TLC1 RNA foci, suggesting that the function of TERRA as a scaffold molecule to generate telomerase cluster is necessary for this yeast cell growth phases. / Les télomères à l’extrémité des chromosomes constituent une structure d’ADN et de protéines essentielle à l’intégrité de ces chromosomes. La télomérase est l’enzyme responsable du maintien des répétitions télomériques à l’extrémité des chromosomes. Cette enzyme est constituée d’une sous-unité catalytique, qui possède une activité de transcriptase réverse, et d’une sous-unité d’ARN, qui fourni la matrice nécessaire à la synthèse des répétitions télomériques. Les ARN contenant des répétions télomériques (ou Telomeric repeats-containing RNA; TERRA) constitue une nouvelle classe d’ARN non-codants transcrits à partir des télomères et conservée chez la plupart des eucaryotes. TERRA a été proposé d’agir comme un régulateur de l‘homéostasie des télomères et comme inhibiteur de la télomérase, mais sa fonction spécifique reste inconnue. De plus, chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, TERRA est rapidement dégradé par l’exonucléase 5’-3’ Rat1, ce qui complique l’étude de cet ARN par les méthodes biochimiques classiques. Dans cette thèse, nous rapportons l‘utilisation d’une approche cytologique pour étudier TERRA dans les cellules de levures. Deux approches sont utilisées : l’hybridation in situ en fluorescence (FISH) et l’étiquetage de TERRA à l’aide du système MS2-GFP, qui nous permet de visualiser l’expression de TERRA transcrit d’un seul télomère dans des cellules vivantes. Avec ces deux approches, nous observons que TERRA exprimé à partir d’un seul télomère s’accumule dans un faible nombre de cellules, sous la forme d’un focus périnucléaire. De plus, nous montrons que TERRA est exprimé lorsque son télomère raccourcit. Par immunoprécipitation, nous montrons que TERRA interagit in vivo avec l’ARN de la télomérase de levure, TLC1. L’élongation des télomères dépend de l‘action de multiples molécules de télomérase, qui sont visibles sous la forme de clusters de télomérases, qui s‘associent en phase S avec les télomères chez la levure et les cellules de mammifère. Nous démontrons que TERRA stimule la nucléation de ces clusters de télomérase. Par imagerie en temps réel de TERRA et de l’ARN TLC1, nous observons que TERRA agit comme molécule d’échafaudage pour générer des clusters de télomérases, qui sont par la suite recrutés, en phase S, au télomère duquel TERRA a été exprimé. Le recrutement d’un focus de TERRA à son télomère d’origine dépend des facteurs contrôlant le recrutement de la télomérase aux télomères : Mre11, Tel1 et le complexe yKu. Nous proposons qu’un télomère court exprime TERRA pour assembler et organiser les molécules de télomérase, afin que celles-ci soit puissent être recrutées au télomère court pour permettre son élongation. Enfin, nous observons une surexpression de l’ARN de la télomérase TLC1 et de TERRA, ainsi qu’une accumulation cytoplasmique de ceux-ci sous la forme de foci, lorsque la cellule passe de la phase de croissance exponentiel à la phase diauxique, puis à la phase stationnaire. Dans ces conditions, les foci d’ARN TLC1 colocalisent avec les foci de TERRA, suggérant que la fonction de TERRA comme molécule d’échafaudage pour générer des foci de télomérase est aussi nécessaire durant ces phases du cycle de croissance des levures.

L’imagerie médicale a longtemps été limitée à cause des performances médiocres des fluorophores organiques. Récemment la recherche sur les nanocristaux semi-conducteurs a grandement contribué à l’élargissement de la gamme d’applications de la luminescence dans les domaines de l’imagerie et du diagnostic. Les points quantiques (QDs) sont des nanocristaux de taille similaire aux protéines (2-10 nm) dont la longueur d’onde d’émission dépend de leur taille et de leur composition. Le fait que leur surface peut être fonctionnalisée facilement avec des biomolécules rend leur application particulièrement attrayante dans le milieu biologique. Des QDs de structure « coeur-coquille » ont été synthétisés selon nos besoins en longueur d’onde d’émission. Dans un premier article nous avons modifié la surface des QDs avec des petites molécules bi-fonctionnelles portant des groupes amines, carboxyles ou zwitterions. L’effet de la charge a été analysé sur le mode d’entrée des QDs dans deux types cellulaires. À l’aide d’inhibiteurs pharmacologiques spécifiques à certains modes d’internalisation, nous avons déterminé le mode d’internalisation prédominant. L’endocytose par les radeaux lipidiques représente le mode d’entrée le plus employé pour ces QDs de tailles similaires. D’autres modes participent également, mais à des degrés moindres. Des disparités dans les modes d’entrée ont été observées selon le ligand de surface. Nous avons ensuite analysé l’effet de l’agglomération de différents QDs sur leur internalisation dans des cellules microgliales. La caractérisation des agglomérats dans le milieu de culture cellulaire a été faite par la technique de fractionnement par couplage flux-force (AF4) associé à un détecteur de diffusion de la lumière. En fonction du ligand de surface et de la présence ou non de protéines du sérum, chacun des types de QDs se sont agglomérés de façon différente. À l'aide d’inhibiteur des modes d’internalisation, nous avons corrélé les données de tailles d’agglomérats avec leur mode d’entrée cellulaire. Les cellules microgliales sont les cellules immunitaires du système nerveux central (CNS). Elles répondent aux blessures ou à la présence d’inflammagènes en relâchant des cytokines pro-inflammatoires. Une inflammation non contrôlée du CNS peut conduire à la neurodégénérescence neuronale et est souvent observée dans les cas de maladies chroniques. Nous nous sommes intéressés au développement d’un nanosenseur pour mesurer des biomarqueurs du début de l’inflammation. Les méthodes classiques pour étudier l’inflammation consistent à mesurer le niveau de protéines ou molécules relâchées par les cellules stressées (par exemple monoxyde d’azote, IL-1β). Bien que précises, ces méthodes ne mesurent qu’indirectement l’activité de la caspase-1, responsable de la libération du l’IL-1β. De plus ces méthode ne peuvent pas être utilisées avec des cellules vivantes. Nous avons construit un nanosenseur basé sur le FRET entre un QD et un fluorophore organique reliés entre eux par un peptide qui est spécifiquement clivé par la caspase-1. Pour induire l’inflammation, nous avons utilisé des molécules de lipopolysaccharides (LPS). La molécule de LPS est amphiphile. Dans l’eau le LPS forme des nanoparticules, avec des régions hydrophobes à l’intérieure. Nous avons incorporé des QDs dans ces régions ce qui nous a permis de suivre le cheminement du LPS dans les cellules microgliales. Les LPS-QDs sont internalisés spécifiquement par les récepteurs TLR-4 à la surface des microglies. Le nanosenseur s’est montré fonctionnel dans la détermination de l’activité de la caspase-1 dans cellules microgliales activées par le LPS. Éventuellement, le senseur permettrait d’observer en temps réel l’effet de thérapies ciblant l’inflammation, sur l’activité de la caspase-1. / Medical imaging based on fluorescence has suffered from the poor photostability and mediocre performance of organic fluorophores. The discovery and subsequent improvements in nanocrystal synthesis and functionalization has greatly benefited the applications in medical imaging and the development of nanocrystal-based sensors for diagnostics. QDs are semi-conductor nanocrystals which have similar sizes as proteins (2-10 nm). They are highly luminescent, and can be made to emit at any desired wavelength by varying their size and composition. The surface of QDs can be easily functionalized with biomolecules. Hence, it is interesting to study how QDs interact in the biological world. Highly luminescent core-shell QDs emitting at different wavelengths were prepared according to our needs. In a first study, the surface of the QDs was modified with various small bi-functional thiolated ligands (carboxylated, aminated and zwitterionic). The modified-QDs of nearly identical sizes were administered in vitro to study the impact of surface charge and cell type on the mode and extent of cell uptake and elimination. Using specific inhibitors of cell uptake we determined which modes contributed to the internalization of the QDs. Endocytosis mediated by lipid rafts represented the predominant pathway for the internalization of QDs. However, other modes contributed to a lesser degree, depending on the surface ligand. We then analyzed the effect of QD agglomeration in cell culture media on its cellular uptake by microglia. Thorough characterization of QD agglomerate size distribution was conducted by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) with a dynamic light scattering detector. Depending on the type of surface ligand and if serum proteins were present, the agglomeration pattern of the QDs was significantly different. With inhibitors of specific modes of cell uptake, we showed that the size distribution data, obtained by AF4, correlated with the modes of cell uptake. Microglia cells are immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS). They respond to injury or the presence of inflammagens by producing pro-inflammatory cytokine. Inflammation in the CNS may lead to loss of neurons, and can found in many chronic diseases. We were interested in building nanosensors to measure the onset of inflammation. Current methods to study inflammation consist in measuring levels of certain proteins or chemicals released by stressed cell (e.g. Western blot or ELISA assay for IL-1β). Although precise, these methods measure indirectly the activity of the enzyme responsible for releasing IL-1β, i.e. caspase-1. Moreover, these methods cannot be applied to live cells. We designed a sensor based on FRET between a QD and a dye linked by a peptide specifically cleaved by the caspase-1. To induce inflammation, we applied lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are endotoxins present in Gram negative bacteria responsible for sceptic shock. The LPS form nanoparticles due to their amphiphilicity. The interior hydrophobic regions were used to load hydrophobic QDs, making the LPS luminescent. The microglia internalized LPS-QD predominantly through TLR-4 membrane receptors. We describe how the LPS induce inflammation and demonstrated the functionality of the QD-based sensor. Eventually, the sensor could be used to monitor in real time the action of therapeutics against inflammation.

The present thesis deals with different aspects of the chemistry of oxovanadium(IV) complexes, their interaction with double stranded DNA, photo-induced DNA cleavage, photo-enhanced cytotoxicity in visible light and red light and localisation and cellular uptake to understand the mechanism of cell death. Chapter I presents a general introduction on potential of transition metal complexes as photochemotherapeutic agents. A brief introduction about Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) as a new alternative to chemotherapy for treating cancer has been made. Various modes of interaction of small molecules with duplex DNA are described. Recent reports on metal-based photocytotoxicity, photo-induced DNA cleavage activity and cellular localization are presented in detail. Objective of the present investigation is also dealt in this Chapter. Chapter II of the thesis deals with the synthesis, characterization, DNA binding and photo-induced DNA cleavage activity of ternary oxovanadium(IV) complexes of ONO-donor 2-(2-hydroxybenzylideneamino)phenol (salamp) and phenanthroline bases to explore the photo-induced DNA cleavage activity in UV-A light of 365 nm and photocytotoxicity in visible light. Chapter III deals with the photo-induced DNA cleavage and photocytotoxicity of ternary oxovanadium(IV) complexes containing ONN-donor N-2-pyridylmethylidine-2-hydroxyphenylamine (Hpyamp) Schiff bases and phenanthroline bases. The objective of this work is to investigate the photo-induced DNA cleavage activity in near-IR light. Photocytotoxicity and cell cycle arrest have been studied in HeLa cancer cells. Chapter IV deals serendipitous discovery of planar triazinuim cationic species by vanadyl-assisted novel ring cyclization reaction. The compounds are synthesised, characterized and their DNA binding and anaerobic photoinduced DNA cleavage activity are presented. The importance of the thiazole moiety in the triazinuim species in cellular uptake has been investigated. Photocytotoxicity, localization and cell death mechanism have been studied in HeLa and MCF-7 cells. Chapter V describes the synthesis, characterization, DNA binding, photo-induced DNA cleavage activity and photocytotoxicity of oxovanadium(IV) complexes containing 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethylene)ethaneamine (Hpy-aebmz) and curcumin as photosensitizer. The effect of conjugating naphthalimide on Hpy-aebmz on photoinduced DNA cleavage and photocytotoxicity has been studied. Cellular uptake, localization and mechanism of cell death induced by complexes have been investigated. Chapter VI presents ternary oxovanadium(IV) complexes having, 2-((1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)methylimino-methyl)phenol (Hsal-ambmz) and phenanthroline bases. The complexes were synthesized, characterized and their DNA binding property studied. Photo-induced DNA cleavage activity and photocytotoxicity in red light has been discussed. Anthracene has been conjugated to a tridentate ligand to investigate cellular uptake, localization and cell death mechanism. Mitochondria targeting property of the complexes having dipeptide has been studied and compared with clinically used drug Photofrin®. The references have been compiled at the end of each chapter and indicated as superscript numbers in the text. The complexes presented in this thesis are represented by bold-faced numbers. Crystallographic data of the complexes, characterized structurally by single crystal X-ray crystallography, are given in CIF format in the enclosed CD (Appendix-I). Due acknowledgements have been made wherever the work described is based on the findings of other investigators. Any unintentional omission that might have happened due to oversight or mistake is regretted.

The present thesis deals with different aspects of the chemistry and photo-biology of various ferrocene-conjugated metal complexes, their interaction with double helical DNA, DNA photocleavage and photo-enhanced cytotoxicity in visible light. Phenyl analogues of the active complexes have been synthesized and used for comparison in biological assays. Chapter I provides an introduction to the potential of metal complexes as photochemotherapeutic agents with special reference to organometallic compounds. A brief overview of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) as a new modality of cancer treatment has been given. Various modes of non-covalent interactions of small molecules with duplex DNA are mentioned. Recent reports on the metal-based photocytotoxic and DNA cleaving agents including photoactivatable organometallic compounds are discussed. The objective of the present investigation is also presented in this chapter. Chapter II presents the synthesis, characterization, structure, DNA binding, DNA photocleavage, photocytotoxicity, mechanism of cell death and cellular localization of ferrocene-conjugated L-methionine reduced Schiff base Cu(II) complexes of phenanthroline bases. To explore the role of the ferrocenyl moiety the phenyl analogues of the ferrocenyl complexes are synthesized and used as controls for comparison purpose. Chapter III deals with the photo-induced DNA cleavage and photo-enhanced cytotoxicity of ferrocene-appended L-tryptophan Cu(II) complexes of heterocyclic bases. The synthesis, characterization, structural comparisons, DNA binding, DNA photocleavage, photocytotoxic activity and cell death mechanism in visible light are discussed in detail. Chapter IV describes the synthesis, characterization and structure of ferrocenylmethyl-L-tyrosine Cu(II) complexes of phenanthroline bases. The complexes are evaluated for DNA binding, DNA photocleavage and photocytotoxic activity in visible light. The cellular localization of the complexes and the mechanism of cell death induced by the complexes are also discussed. Chapter V presents the photocytotoxic effect of ferrocene-conjugated L-amino acid reduced Schiff base Cu(II) complexes of anthracenyl/pyrenyl imidazophenanthroline. The ability of the complexes to bind to double helical DNA and cleave it under photo-illumination conditions is described. Evaluation of the complexes as photochemotherapeutic agents and comparison with currently clinically available drug Photofrin are presented. The mechanism of cancer cell death and cellular localization of the complexes are studied by fluorescence microscopy. Chapter VI describes the synthesis, characterization and photochemotherapeutic efficacy of Cu(II) complexes having ferrocene-appended L-amino acid reduced Schiff base ligands and the naturally occurring polyphenol curcumin. Stabilization of curcumin by complexation to metal for improved photodynamic effect in cancer cells is described with comparison to the parent dye and clinically used drug Photofrin. The mechanism of cell death induced by the copper complexes and their localization in cancer cells are also presented. Finally, the summary of the dissertation and conclusions drawn from the present investigations are presented. The references in the text have been indicated as superscript numbers and compiled at the end of each chapter. The complexes presented in this thesis are represented by bold-faced numbers. Crystallographic data of the structurally characterized complexes are given in CIF format in the enclosed CD (Appendix-I). Due acknowledgements have been made wherever the work described is based on the findings of other investigators. Any unintentional omission that might have happened due to oversight or mistake is regretted.