Cette thèse consiste à une étude comparative entre les romans arthuriens d’un côté et le Shâh-Nâme de Ferdowsi de l’autre coté sur le sujet de Graal. L’enjeu est d’étudier l’origine du Mythe du Graal et essayer d’expliquer la ressemblance entre le mythe du Graal avec le Khvarnah l’équivalent de mythe dans la littérature persane. Dans une première partie, la thèse se concentre sur une étude du mythe de Graal chez Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach et Ferdowsi. Les différentes manifestations du mythe, le sens spirituel tout autour de ce mythe seront l’objet de cette recherche dans cette partie. Dans un second temps, la thèse fait porter l’analyse sur l’origine de ce mythe tellement contesté chez les chercheurs de différentes écoles, soit l’origine celtique ou irano-aryenne. Cette thèse défendra la théorie d’origine iranienne en prenant en considération l’influence celtique du mythe. Selon ce travail, dans la structure du roman de Graal, il existe une base du folklore Alano-celtique que le néo manichéisme cathare, en l’utilisant comme la matière première, construit une couche d’initiation propre à la conviction dualiste afin d’ajouter le personnage de Perceval/Parzival à l’histoire du roi Arthur. Parzival, de ce point de vue, est plus proche de sa modèle persane Kay Khosrow. La divergence entre l’auteur français par rapport à son homologue allemand dépend de leur situation sociale ; Chrétien est l’artiste proche du pouvoir religieux de l’église catholique et Wolfram, le chevalier qui gagne sa vie en chantant, était proche des hérésies cathares et des templiers. Enfin, ce travail essaie de montrer que ce mythe d’origine aryenne, est déformé par les religions à leur fin et que le vrai sens de la quête n’est pas le salut mais le surhomme. / This thesis is a comparative study of the Arthurian romances on the one side and the Shâh-Nâmeh of Ferdowsi on the other side, referring to the subject of the Grail. The challenge is, to study the origin of the Grail myth and try to explain the similarity between the myth of the Grail and Khvarna, the equivalent myth in Persian literature. In the first part, the thesis focuses on a study of the Grail myth in the work of Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Ferdowsi. Different manifestations of the myth, the spiritual sense around this myth will be the subject of this research in this part. In a second step, the thesis focuses the analysis on the origin of this myth much disputed among researchers of different schools, either Irano-Aryan or Celtic origin. This thesis defends the theory of Iranian origin, taking into account the Celtic myth too. According to this work, the structure of the Grail novel is based on Alano-Celtic folklore. Thereafter, Catharism, using it as the raw material, built a layer initiation specific to dualistic belief, in order to add the character of Perceval/ Parzival to the story of King Arthur. From this point of view, Parzival is closer to the Persian Kay Khosrow model. The divergence between the French author in relation to his German counterpart depends on their different social situation; Chrétien was an artist close to the religious authority of the Catholic Church and Wolfram, the knight who earned his living by singing, was close to Cathare heresy and the Templers. Finally, this work tries to show that the origin of this Aryan myth is that distorted by religions to achieve their ends and that the true meaning of the quest is not salvation but the “Übermensch”.

Este trabalho é um estudo comparativo entre dois romances de Chrétien de Troyes, Lancelot ou o cavaleiro da Charrete e Perceval ou o Romance do Graal e A Demanda do Santo Graal. Através desse estudo, pretende-se mostrar que a leitura de cada romance, separadamente, pode levar a enganos interpretativos, uma vez que não se considera o contexto geral em que as obras foram produzidas. Dessa forma, neste trabalho busca-se uma leitura mais completa dessas obras que se daria em três etapas: a leitura que cada autor fez do mito do Rei Artur, que foi sendo aos poucos construído, a leitura do contexto medieval feita por cada autor e as diferentes leituras que um autor leva a enxergar no outro, o que não seria possível sem o cruzamento dos textos. Para tanto, serão perseguidos nas obras o tratamento dado às mulheres e a construção da figura do herói nos três romances. Através dessas linhas investigativas pretende-se demonstrar não só aquilo que as três obras possuem de traços em comum, mas principalmente, o que possuem de diferente. Primeiramente, será revisada a fortuna crítica a respeito da matéria da Bretanha, buscando mostrar o que foi afirmado de mais relevante sobre esses dois aspectos perseguidos, pelos principais autores que se debruçaram especificamente sobre as obras estudadas e sobre esse conjunto de histórias que envolvem o rei Artur e sua corte. Num segundo momento, será explicitada a teoria da intertextualidade enfatizando a contribuição indispensável do olhar intertextual para a análise das obras. A partir disso, será feito o cruzamento dos três textos para que se comprove a mudança que a teoria da intertextualidade proporciona à leitura das três obras. Ao fazer uso das teorias da literatura comparada, particularmente a intertextualidade, pretende-se demonstrar que A Demanda do Santo Graal é uma continuação de Lancelot ou o cavaleiro da charrete e de Perceval ou o romance do Graal, em que a presença dos elementos cristãos vai aumentando gradativamente, e não seu oposto como afirma a maioria dos especialistas na matéria da Bretanha. / This work is a comparative study of two novels of Chrétien de Troyes, Lancelot or the Knight of the chariots and Perceval or the Romance of the Grail and The demand of the Holy Grail. Through this study it intends to show that the reading of each novel, separately, can lead to misleading interpretations, since it is not considered the general context in which the works were produced. Thus, in this paper it aims a more complete reading of these works that would be in three stages: the reading that each author has made from the myth of King Arthur, which was built in phases, the reading of medieval context made by each author and the different readings that one author leads to see the other, which would not be possible without the crossing of the texts. Thus, it will be pursued in the works the treatment directed to women and the construction of the figure of the hero in three novels. Through these investigative lines it intendeds to demonstrate not only what the three works have in common features, but mainly, which are different. Firstly, it will review the critical fortune on the matter of Britain, seeking to show that the most relevant was said about these two important aspects pursued by the major authors that focused specifically on the works studied and on the stories involving the king Arthur and his court. Secondly, will be outlined the theory of intertextuality emphasizing the indispensable contribution of the gaze to the intertextual analysis of the works. From this, it will be the intersection of the three texts to prove the change that the theory of intertextuality provides the reading of three works. By making use of the theories of comparative literature, particularly the intertextuality, it intends to demonstrate that The demand of the Holy Grail is a continuation of Lancelot or the Knight of the chariots and of Perceval or the Romance of the Grail, in which the presence of Christian elements increasing gradually, and not its opposite, as affirm the majority of experts in the matter of Brittany.

No final do século XII, Chrétien de Troyes considerado por muitos críticos o maior poeta francês da chamada Idade Média compõe um poema narrativo Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion no qual se percebem elementos tidos como característicos do gênero maravilhoso, tais quais objetos mágicos e seres extraordinários, como monstros e gigantes. Esses elementos entre outros fatores levaram boa parte da crítica a enxergar na poesia medieval, durante muito tempo, uma certa ingenuidade, típica de uma infância da literatura. Rejeitando uma perspectiva evolucionista, o presente trabalho pretende olhar para esse texto antigo respeitando sua alteridade, mas, ao mesmo tempo, trazendo-o para o centro dos debates atuais relativos à literatura. Um olhar atento ao poema permite constatar a íntima relação entre o maravilhoso e o descritivo, a qual constitui o objeto deste estudo. Por meio da leitura do retrato de um camponês monstruoso tomado em sua textualidade, evitando-se uma separação artificial entre forma e conteúdo , promove-se um deslocamento do conceito de maravilhoso, não mais visto como conjunto de motivos, mas como um efeito provocado por operações discursivas. / At the end of the twelfth century, Chrétien de Troyes considered by many critics the greatest French poet of the so-called Middle Ages produced a narrative poem Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion in which one perceives elements considered characteristic of the genre known as marvelous, such as magical objects and extraordinary beings, like monsters and giants. These elements among other factors led much of the criticism to see in medieval poetry, for a long time, some innocence, typical of a childhood of literature. Rejecting an evolutionary perspective, this study aims at looking at this ancient text respecting its otherness, but at the same time, bringing it to the center of current literature debates. A close look at the poem brings out the intimate relationship between the marvelous and the descriptive, main subject of the present study. Through the reading of the portrait of a monstrous peasant taken in its textuality, avoiding an artificial separation between form and content a shift is promoted in the concept of marvelous, no longer seen as a set of motifs, but as an effect of discursive operations.

Les auteurs qui vivaient à la cour des Plantagenêt, créaient une sorte de mythe historique et culturel, appelé à contribuer à la consolidation politique et sociale de leur royaume. Les Lais de Marie s’inscrivent dans ce contexte. La première partie montre pourquoi et comment Marie s’adresse à l’œuvre historiographique de Wace. L’influence de cet écrivain transparaît incontestablement dans l’œuvre de Marie et il n’est pas impossible que son projet littéraire, consistant à créer un recueil des douze lais, puisse être inspiré par la chronique de l’historiographe. La seconde partie dégage de nombreux liens intertextuels entre Marie et Chrétien de Troyes. Les contes d’origine celtique portant sur les transformations des personnes en animaux, « métamorphoses bretonnes », furent aux yeux de Marie une sorte de version des Métamorphoses antiques, un monument littéraire adapté par le jeune Chrétien. Celui-ci n’hésitait pas à faire dans ses romans des allusions plus au moins claires aux lais. La troisième partie étudie les notions-clés de la poésie des troubadours, ainsi que certains genres de la lyrique provençale qui auraient pu influencer les Lais. La quatrième partie met en lumière l’aspect parodique de la réception de la matière bretonne, ainsi que des lais de Marie par les auteurs anonymes. Marie transforme radicalement le statut culturel et littéraire des contes bretons, en imprégnant leurs adaptations françaises des réminiscences des écrits créés par ses contemporains et en ennoblissant les personnages conformément à la nouvelle morale de la société courtoise. Le genre de lai acquiert des contours précis, le chronotope breton se fixe en tant qu’élément essentiel du lai. / Authors who lived at the Plantagenet court created a historical and cultural myth that was meant to contribute to the political and social consolidation of the kingdom. Marie de France’s Lais are situated in this context. The first part of my thesis focuses on how and why Marie addresses the historiographical work of Wace. Not only is his influence visible in the lais but his voluminous poetical chronicle might have inspired in Marie the very idea of composing a collection of twelve lais. The second part brings to light a significant number of intertextual connections between Marie de France and Chrétien de Troyes. It is argued that Marie saw some similarities between the tales of Celtic origin about the transformation of humans into animals and Ovid’s Metamorphoses, translated by young Chrétien de Troyes. In his turn, Chrétien did not hesitate to allude to Marie’s Lais, more or less openly. The third part centers on the key notions and certain genres of troubadour poetry as a potential source of Marie’s Lais. The fourth part examines the parodic aspect in the reception of the Matter of Britain and of Marie’s Lais by anonymous authors. The results of my research have lead me to the conclusion that Marie radically transformed the cultural and literary status of Breton tales, filling them with reminiscences of her contemporaries’ writings, ennobling the characters of her tales in accordance with the new moral code of the court, and endowing them with the gloss of a fairy-tale ideality. Her immediate successors made this gloss even more pronounced. Thus the genre of the lai acquired a precise shape, and the Breton chronotope became an essential element of the lai.

Ce mémoire a pour objet d’étude Laissez les enfants venir à moi d’Antoine van Dyck, peint entre 1618 et 1620. Cette œuvre est un ajout singulier au canon existant puisqu’elle se présente sous la forme d’un portrait historié; de là sa qualification d’invention dans ce mémoire. Comme il s’agit de la première fois que le terme « invention » est utilisé pour décrire cette œuvre d’art en particulier, l’objectif implicite de l’étude est de montrer la vraisemblance de cette affirmation. Dans une optique d’abord historique, l’œuvre sera analysée dans le contexte de sa réalisation, soit la jeunesse de l’artiste et son apprentissage dans le milieu anversois du début du XVIIe siècle. L’iconographie du thème du Christ bénissant les enfants sera également considérée afin de mettre en lumière l’invention du portrait historié, avant de conclure avec l’aspect performatif de l’image créée par Van Dyck et son incidence sur le spectateur.

Notre travail de recherche pose la question de la présence de Dieu au coeur de la souffrance humaine. Une réponse nous est donnée dans la théologie de la Croix de Jiirgen Moltmann, théologie qui présente un Dieu qui s'abaisse, s'humilie et souffre ; un Dieu trinitaire qui, de toute éternité, par amour, se donne tout entier, porte en lui toute misère, toute souffrance, les faisant siennes jusqu'à subir volontairement l'abandon et la mort infâme sur la Croix et qui, au plus profond de la déréliction, fait surgir la vie nouvelle. C'est donc sous l'aspect de la kénose et celui de la souffrance créatrices que Dieu se révèle à nous et nous invite, à son exemple, à assumer notre propre souffrance, à nous rendre solidaires des plus malheureux, à lutter sans cesse contre le mal, la misère et l'injustice.

(in English): Intimacy and solitude in Chrétien de Troyes' works and in the Czech courtly romance The thesis studies some literary images of interiority, profound emotions and thougts, solitude and the need for privacy as these are depicted in the romances of Chrétien de Troyes and in the works of his continuators (namely those connected with the Tristan romances). They are interpreted as an expression of the medieval poets' effort to influence their public, to cultivate and to present some interesting subjects and important questions in the guise of a fictional story. There are striking descriptions of the unbalance between solitude and social duties, positive or negative evaluation of human solitude (always depending on the narrator's intention), or symbolical objects from the intimate sphere used as manifest means of political representation. Martin Šorm

La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d’application de ce mémoire est d’étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l’histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l’anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l’Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l’Arménie a été sous l’influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l’oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu’en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu’est la politique d’«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l’héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l’Église a placé ses fondements. L’Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l’invention de l’alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l’âge d’or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l’Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple. / The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people.

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