La investigación se ha centrado en la iconografía diabólica e infernal en el corpus de los Beatos hispanos, entre la segunda parte del siglo X y las primeras décadas del XIII. En una primera parte se ha indagado acerca de la conceptualización de la personificación del mal en la figura del Diablo y en cómo imaginaron el Infierno las culturas antiguas de la cuenca del Mediterráneo. Se ha dedicado particular interés a las Escrituras canónicas judeocristianas que determinarían la austeridad representativa de las primigenias imágenes de nuestro objeto de estudio, en consonancia con los planteos teológicos de la Patrística temprana. Debido a que las imágenes acompañan al "Comentario al Apocalipsis" de Beato de Liébana, se ha contextualizado la producción hispana dentro del panorama artístico europeo en lo referente a la ilustración del Libro de la Revelación; se han consultado y analizado los escritos apocalípticos extracanónicos y la tradición oral u escrita musulmana como posibles fuentes iconográficas a la hora de representar a los personajes y los lugares del más allá. El trabajo incluye el relevamiento completo de once escenas en que las fuerzas del mal operan en la era escatológica y luego son derrotadas y aprisionadas en la estancia punitiva, en todo el corpus de veintisiete códices. Su análisis demuestra que mientras la iconografía se mantiene fiel a la tradición hispana de sus primeros ejemplares, el estilo se va adaptando a los lineamientos formales del románico, en función de la internacionalización de dicho estilo. El apéndice fotográfico reúne por primera vez la totalidad de las imágenes diabólicas e infernales en el corpus beatiano. / The research has focused on the diabolical and infernal iconography in the corpus of Hispanic Beatus, between the second half of the tenth century and the first decades of the thirteenth. In the first part has inquired about the personification of evil in the figure of the Devil and how Hell was imagined in ancient cultures of the Mediterranean basin. It has devoted particular interest to judeochristians canonical Scriptures that would trigger austerity representative of the primordial images of our object of study, consistent with the theological proposals of the early Fathers. Because the images are accompanying the "Commentary on the Apocalypse" of Beatus of Liebana, it has contextualized the Hispanic production in the European art scene and has analyzed the apocalyptic writings extracanonical and oral or written Muslim tradition as possible iconographic sources when representing the characters and the places of the Other World. The work includes the full survey of eleven scenes in which the forces of evil operating in the eschatological age and then are defeated and imprisoned in punitive stay throughout the corpus of twenty codices. Their analysis shows that while the iconography is faithful to the hispanic iconography tradition of its first copies, the style adapts to the formal guidelines of Romanesque, depending on the internationalization of that style. The photographic appendix meets for the first time all the diabolical and infernal images in the twenty seven copies of the Beatus.

Esta tesis se sitúa en el debate teórico del turismo sostenible y la tipología de sus modelos de desarrollo turístico. En el marco de un conflicto socio-ambiental, se pone en evidencia la dualidad conceptual del turismo y del turismo sostenible. Así, el caso de estudio se gesta a partir del surgimiento de una estrategia de implantación de un gran proyecto hidroeléctrico en la Patagonia chilena, conocida y validada por la institucionalidad y los actores locales como un destino turístico ligado a la naturaleza y a la conservación del medio ambiente. La pregunta de investigación que plantea esta tesis es ¿cómo la dinámica turística local, asociada a un espacio natural relevante ambientalmente y a un escenario de conflicto socio-ambiental, incide en un determinado modelo de turismo sostenible?. La hipótesis central señala que a mayor dinámica turística local, mayor es el indicio de un modelo de turismo sostenible fuerte o integrado en un espacio turístico natural. En términos metodológicos, el estudio es de tipo cualitativo y se llevó a cabo mediante un estudio de caso. El instrumento de recolección de información fue la entrevista en profundidad aplicada a veinte y cinco actores claves del turismo de la región de Aysén y de Chile. Una vez hecho el análisis, la tesis valida la hipótesis de trabajo, puesto que el turismo en Aysén tiene un fuerte dinamismo local, dado por pequeñas empresas turísticas y organizaciones gremiales que tienen un discurso de protección del medio ambiente. Por último, el turismo en la región de Aysén se ha convertido en una estrategia de reivindicación político-social del territorio, por cuanto se ha consolidado como idea fuerza que se opone a grandes proyectos hidroeléctricos. / This thesis is based by the theoretical debate between sustainable tourism and the typologies of development touristic models. As part of a socio-environmental conflict, emerge the conceptual duality of tourism and sustainable tourism. Thus, the case study is based about a large hydroelectric project construction in Chilean Patagonia. This territory is known and validated by the institutions and local actors as a tourist destination related to nature and environmental conservation. The research question by this thesis is how the local tourism dynamics associated to a natural area with a significant environmental value and a socio-environmental conflict, affects a particular model of sustainable tourism?. The main hypothesis is in a higher local tourism dynamics, is greater the sign of a strong model of sustainable tourism or integrated into a natural tourist space. Methodologically, the study is qualitative and was carried out through a case study. The data collection instrument was interview applied to twenty five stakeholders located in the touristic Aysen region and Chile. After the analysis, the thesis has validated the hypothesis, because the tourism activity in Aysen has achieved a strong local support, given by small tourism businesses and trade organizations with an environmental protection speech. Finally, the tourism in the Aysén region has become a political-social strategy to claim/protect the territory and its natural resources. It has become itself as a strong idea which opposes large hydroelectric projects.

Los útiles percusión, sobre todo los tranchets, se utilizaban antes del inicio de la neolitización del Próximo Oriente. Estas herramientas formaban parte del utillaje que portaban ciertos grupos de cazadores recolectores durante sus desplazamientos. En el Xº milenio, cuando la sedentarización se consolida y los modos de vida cambian radicalmente, azuelas, hachas y martillos se convierten en útiles corrientes que se generalizan en todo el Levante. Se convierten en los útiles por excelencia de la neolitización y del Neolítico. Las herminettes de Mureybet, talladas sobre lascas de sílex, son los primeros de estos útiles. Aparecen en el Natufiense final y perduran en el Khiamiense y el Horizonte PPNA. Durante más de un milenio, caracterizan así las industrias líticas de todos los poblados de la cultura Mureybetiense del valle del Éufrates en Siria: Mureybet, Cheikh Hassan, Jerf el Ahmar y tell ‘Abr 3. Son incluso importadas o copiadas en su esencia por los grupos neolíticos alejados del valle, sobre todo en las montañas del Bal’as, en Siria central. En análisis muestra que la azuela de Mureybet esconde en realidad al menos dos útiles fuertemente especializados: la azuela para el corte y el trabajo de la madera y los martillos para el trabajo de la piedra. Lo que se transmite con el Neolítico, y que será adoptado en todo el Levante, es un nuevo modo de enmangue del que deriva una nueva concepción del trabajo de la materia. La evolución arquitectural se verá ampliamente beneficiada. Postes, vigas de grandes dimensiones y estructuras de madera fueron realizadas con estas azuelas. Los mismos muros fueron montados con piedras minuciosamente talladas (pierres en cigares) con la ayuda de martillos enmangados. Materiales antes poco o nada explotados lo serán ampliamente en el Neolítico. Estos instrumentos, o su tipo de enmangue, fueron igualmente requeridos para la fabricación de recipientes en madera y en caliza, para labores de carnicería, de machacado de vegetales o para el trabajo de las pieles. La fabricación de embarcaciones pudo sin duda ser facilitada. Es en la misma época que la isla de Chipre es colonizada. Es en este contexto, hacia 9500 cal a.C., cuando aparecen en las culturas neolíticas pequeñas hachas y azuelas en rocas verdes y negras. La práctica del pulido y de la abrasión ya era conocida por estas poblaciones para los objetos de adorno o las estatuillas. La aplicación de estas técnicas en los útiles de percusión supone una verdadera revolución tecnológica. Ya sean objetos simbólicos o con usos específicos, estas hachas están en el origen del perfeccionamiento de los instrumentos de percusión. En el PPNB antiguo, la azuela de Mureybet y los martillos desaparecen al menos en apariencia puesto que, con enmangues idénticos, se utilizan ahora núcleos laminares abandonados y reciclados. Los útiles de percusión tallados ya no provienen de cadenas operativas distintas sino que son incorporadas en las economías de débitage laminar. La tradición del pulido de pequeñas hachas pulidas perdura, y a partir del PPNB medio la técnica se aplica a hachas y azuelas de grandes dimensiones. En el Neolítico el útil pulido será emblemático. En el Próximo Oriente, solo las poblaciones neolíticas que practican el nomadismo pastoral conservan una fuerte tradición de útiles de percusión tallados, a pesar de un amplio conocimiento de las técnicas de pulido. Durante el VIIº milenio, el Neolítico, ya consolidado en el Próximo Oriente, comienza su difusión hacia Europa. El hacha de piedra pulida acompañará este fenómeno y tendrá un rol fundamental en la vida de las comunidades prehistóricas durante todo el Neolítico, hasta el inicio de Edad de los metales. / Percussion tools, particularly tranchets adzes, were already used by populations in the Near East just before Neolithisation. These tools were included in the tool kits carried by certain groups of hunter-gatherers during their journeys. In the 10th millennium, when sedentarisation had begun and ways of life were changing radically, adzes, axes and hammers became standard tools whose development occurred throughout the Levant. They became the tools par excellence of Neolithisation and of the Neolithic itself. The adzes of Mureybet, knapped on flakes from flint pebbles, were the first of these tools. They appeared at the end of the Natufian and continued in the Khiamian and at the PPNA horizon. For nearly a millennium, they characterised the lithic industries of all the villages of Mureybetian culture of the Euphrates valley in Syria: Mureybet, Sheik Hassan, Jerf el Ahmar and Tell ‘Abr 3. Furthermore, they were imported and copied by Neolithic groups that were distant from this valley, notably in the mountains of the Bal’as in central Syria. The analysis shows that the adze of Mureybet in fact covers at least two highly specialised tools: adzes for cutting and working wood and hammers for working stone. That which diffused with the Neolithic, and which was adopted throughout the Levant, was a new manner of fitting the haft from which arose a new conception of working the material. The evolution of architecture stimulated this development. Posts, large beams and wooden structures were created using these adzes. The walls themselves were constructed with stones (cigar-shaped stones) that were carefully worked using hafted hammers. Materials that had been little employed in the Neolithic or not at all were henceforth used. These instruments, perhaps especially because of their type of hafting, were probably also required for the fabrication of wooden and limestone recipients, for butchering activities, for crushing plants and for working hides. The fabrication of boats was probably facilitated by the use of these tools. This was the same period that the island of Cyprus was colonised. It was in this context, at about 9500 BC cal., that small axes and adzes in green and black stone appeared in the Neolithic cultures. Polishing and abrasion were already practised by these populations on objects of adornment and on figurines. The transfer of these techniques employing percussion tools was a technological revolution. Whether these axes were symbolic objects or whether their use was limited to specific actions, they are at the origin of a major endeavour to perfect percussion tools. n the early PPNB, the adze of Mureybet and the hammers disappeared, or appear to have done so. Henceforth, abandoned and recycled blade nuclei were used, probably with identical hafts. Knapped percussion tools no longer came from chain operations but were incorporated into the economies of blade débitage. The tradition of polishing small axes continued, and beginning in the middle PPNB the technique was applied to large axes and adzes. The polished tool thus became emblematic of the Neolithic. In the Near East, only Neolithic populations practising nomadic pastoralism conserved a strong tradition of knapped percussion tools, in spite of a clear knowledge of polishing techniques. In the 7th millennium, as the Neolithic diffused from the Near East, spreading in particular to Europe, the polished axe also spread. The shape and size hardly changed at all during the entire Neolithic up to the beginning of the use of metals.

Esta tesis incluye el análisis de los restos faunísticos de dos asentamientos del sudeste peninsular: Gatas (Turre, Almería) y La Bastida (Totana, Murcia). Con los resultados de este análisis se amplía la información relativa al modelo de explotación ganadera correspondiente a las sociedad argárica (ca. 2200-1550 ANE). Se inicia con una breve introducción a la problemática histórica de la dinámica de gestión animal en la Edad del Cobre y del Bronce circunscrita al Levante peninsular. A continuación se detalla la metodología seguida en este análisis arqueozoológico especificando los procedimientos y criterios seguidos así como los parámetros considerados en el análisis tafonómico de las muestras estudiadas. Gracias a este análisis ha sido posible garantizar la validez de los datos analizados. Se presentan brevemente los asentamientos de los cuales proceden los restos de fauna analizados. Incluye una parte dedicada a la historia de las investigaciones de los yacimientos, una segunda parte dedicada a la cronología de cada asentamiento y una última en la que se detallan cuáles son los ámbitos de procedencia. Se ha descrito la composición de ambas muestras presentando las frecuencias de representación de los restos de cada especie mediante tres unidades de cuantificación: el NR, NMI y el peso de los restos. Ha sido posible en este trabajo determinar las estrategias productivas a partir de la estructura de la población animal sacrificada. Ello ha supuesto la identificación de diferencias a nivel específico en relación a la producción cárnica, láctea, de lana y al aprovechamiento de la fuerza animal. Asimismo se aporta información relativa al estado de salud de las poblaciones animales de Gatas y La Bastida, lo que supone un indicador directo de las condiciones de vida de los animales en contextos de explotación. Se abordan las problemáticas relativas a la obtención y consumo de alimentos de origen animal. Se incide de manera concreta en las pautas seguidas en el procesado y preparación del alimento. Para ello se presentan y analizan la variabilidad esquelética de cada especie, las trazas antrópicas dejadas sobre las superficies óseas y las pautas de fractura de las porciones y elementos esqueléticos. Ha sido posible definir y comparar entre ambas muestras los patrones de procesado animal, la preparación del alimento y las termoalteraciones antrópicas documentadas en los restos de fauna. Por último, se ha cotejado la representación específica de las muestras estudiadas aquí con otros yacimientos coetáneos de la Edad del Cobre y del Bronce en el Levante peninsular, con el objetivo de contextualizar estos conjuntos espacial y temporalmente. / This thesis includes the analysis of the faunal remains of two settlements from the Southeast of the Iberian Peninsula: Gatas (Turre, Almería) and La Bastida (Totana, Murcia). The results of this analysis extend the current information related to livestock model at argaric society (ca. 2200-1550 ANE). This work starts with a brief introduction to the historical problems of the management of animals in the Copper Age and the Bronze Age circumscribed to peninsular southeast. It follows a detailed explanation of the methodology used in this archaeozoological analysis specifying the procedures and criteria that have been followed and the parameters considered in the taphonomic analysis of the samples studied. Thanks to this analysis, it has been possible to guarantee the validity of the data analyzed. There follows a briefly presentation of the settlements from where come the faunal remains analyzed. It includes a section about the history of the research of the sites, a second part dedicated to their chronology and a final part in which are explained the contexts from where the remains come. There is a description of the composition of both samples showing the frequencies of representation of the remains of each species by three quantification units: the NR, NMI and the weight of the remains. It has been also possible to determine the productive strategies based on the composition of the sacrificed animal population. This has led to the identification of a specific level difference in relation to dairy, meat and wool production and traction. This work also provides information related to the health conditions of animal populations in Gatas and La Bastida, representing a direct indicator of their living conditions in contexts of animal exploitation. In this thesis issues concerning the obtainment and consumption of food of animal origin have been discussed as well. It has been pointed out the practices followed in the butchery and preparation of food. In order to do this, the skeletal variability of each species, anthropic cut marks on bone surfaces and patterns of fracture of portions and skeletal elements have been analyzed. It has been possible to define and compare between both samples the processing patterns of the animals, food preparation and anthropic cooking marks documented in the bones. Finally, it has been compared the specific representation of the samples of Gatas and La Bastida with other contemporary sites of the Copper Age and the Bronze Age from the peninsular Southeast , in order to contextualize them spatially and chronologically.

Questa tesi di dottorato analizza le 4 tombe di giganti di Is Lapideddas (Gonnosnò-OR) combinando due tipologie di studio differenti: archeologia e antropologia. Le sepolture, datate al Bronzo recente secondo datazioni radiocarboniche (1391-1228 cal BC), sono ubicate in un’area in cui sono presenti altre strutture sepolcrali quali fosse a inumazione primaria e secondaria. Il riesame degli studi antropologici in Italia e, soprattutto, in Sardegna ha evidenziato l’uso di due campi d’indagine principali (antropometria e morfometria) per delineare la storia antica del territorio e il suo popolamento. I dati relativi agli studi antropologici dell’età del Bronzo in Sardegna si riferiscono, in particolare, alle ossa considerate più diagnostiche (quali cranio e ossa lunghe) trascurando l’analisi d’insieme dei reperti ossei e dei corredi associati e portando alla generale accettazione delle caratteristiche morfometriche e morfologiche come base fondamentale per il riconoscimento di un determinato gruppo sociale. Il successivo riesame dei contesti archeologici dell’età del Bronzo ha permesso di cogliere gli aspetti peculiari e la scansioni cronologiche di uno dei periodi più articolati della protostoria sarda. L’analisi verte principalmente su contesti con chiara indicazione stratigrafica e, attraverso il solo utilizzo degli indicatori materiali, si osserva lo sviluppo dei diversi periodi secondo elementi di continuità e cambiamento evidenziati per ciascuna fase. L’analisi cronologica e, in particolare l’uso della cronologia assoluta, si rivela fondamentale per il corretto inquadramento cronologico relativo allo sviluppo della “civiltà nuragica”. L’applicazione di nuovi metodi d’indagine (quali la somma delle probabilità e la statistica bayesiana) appare indispensabile nel riesame delle datazioni radiocarboniche dell’età del Bronzo permettendo di comprendere meglio formazione e sviluppo del periodo analizzato. La comprensione di una comunità nuragica come quella di Is Lapideddas non può prescindere, inoltre, dall’analisi delle emergenze archeologiche e dell’ambiente naturale che caratterizzano profondamente l’isola. In relazione alle manifestazioni funerarie, particolare rilievo viene dato alle tombe di giganti che appaiono, al pari dei nuraghi, il monumento più rappresentativo della “civiltà nuragica”. L’analisi delle tombe di Is Lapideddas, dal punto di vista architettonico, rivela l’importanza di queste costruzioni dal punto di vista sociale e religioso. L’analisi dei reperti ossei umani appare fondamentale per la comprensione dei gruppi sociali qui sepolti. I reperti analizzati presentano un grado di conservazione molto vario che riflettono i danneggiamenti subiti dalle sepolture nel corso del tempo. Solo a partire dai reperti ossei della tomba 4 è stato possibile definire le modalità di deposizione dei defunti all’interno della camera funeraria, che avveniva utilizzando principalmente l’inumazione primaria. La presenza delle fosse a inumazione secondaria (una delle quali datata anch’essa al Bronzo recente: 1380-1276 cal BC) appare indicativa dello svuotamento periodico delle sepolture per far posto a nuove inumazioni. Lo studio dei reperti ossei umani delle 4 sepolture si concentra principalmente sugli aspetti basici della ricostruzione paleo-demografica quali analisi del Numero Minimo di Individui, stima del sesso e dell’età alla morte della popolazione inumata. Tali aspetti si rivelano fondamentali per la comprensione dell’uso e del rituale praticato. L’analisi mostra, sempre con particolare riferimento alla tomba 4, la presenza di tutte le categorie biologiche analizzate evidenziando come la sepoltura fosse destinata ai membri di tutta la comunità senza eccezioni: la presenza di feti e di individui appena nati sottolinea la non esclusione di alcuni individui in rapporto all’età. In relazione al sesso si evidenzia la preponderanza degli individui femminili che potrebbe essere messa in relazione sia ai problemi legati alla gravidanza e al parto sia alla mobilità di parte della popolazione (in particolare maschile) per motivi diversi (transumanza, commercio, etc.). L’ultima parte prende in considerazione i dati osteometrici, i caratteri epigenetici e le condizioni di vita e salute della popolazione inumata. / This doctoral thesis analyzes the four giants tombs of Is Lapideddas (Gonnosnò-OR) and combines two different types of studies: archeology and anthropology. The burials are date back to the Bronze Age according to radiocarbon dating (1391-1228 cal BC); they are located in an area where other burial structures (as pit-graves) are used for primary and secondary inhumation. The review of anthropological studies in Italy, and primarily, in Sardinia, highlights the use of anthropometry and morphometry to describe the ancient history of an area and its population. Data on anthropological studies from the Bronze Age in Sardinia relate in particular to diagnostic bones (such as the skull and long bones) and neglect the overall analysis of bone specimens and the grave goods within: this has led to the general acceptance of morphometric and morphologic characteristics as the fundamental basis for recognition of a particular social group. The next review of the archaeological contexts of the Bronze Age has allowed us to capture the unique aspects and chronological phases of one of the most articulate periods of the recent prehistory of Sardinia. The analysis focuses mainly on contexts clearly indicating stratigraphies and, through the sole use of material indicators, we observe the development of the different periods according to elements of continuity and change highlighted in each step. The chronological analysis and, in particular, the use of absolute chronology, is crucial for the correct chronology of the development of "Nuragic civilization". The application of new methods of investigation (such as the sum of the probabilities and Bayesian statistics) is essential in the review of radiocarbon datings of the Bronze Age and allow a better understanding of the formation and development of the reporting period. The understanding of a Nuragic community like the one buried in Is Lapideddas graves cannot ignore the analysis of archaeological and natural environments that deeply characterize the island. In relation to the funeral manifestations, particular emphasis is given to the giants tombs that appear, like “nuraghi”, the most representative monument of the "Nuragic civilization". The analysis of Is Lapideddas graves, from an architectural point of view, reveals the importance of these buildings to social and religious relations. The analysis of human bone remains is fundamental to the understanding of social groups buried here. The findings have a varied degree of preservation reflecting the damage suffered by the graves over time. Only from the bone remains of Tomb 4 has it been possible to define the mode of deposition of the deceased in the burial chamber, which was done mainly using primary inhumation. The presence of pit-graves for secondary deposition (one of which also dated to the Bronze Age: 1380-1276 cal BC) appears indicative of the periodic emptying of the graves for new burials. The study of human bone remains of the four graves focuses primarily on the basic aspects of the reconstruction of paleo-demographic analysis such as the Minimum Number of Individuals, sex and age at death estimation of the population buried. These aspects are fundamental to the understanding of their use and the rituals practiced there. The analysis shows, always with particular reference to the Tomb 4, the presence of all biological categories and highlights how the burial was used for members of the community without exception: the presence of fetuses and newborn individuals emphasize the inclusion of individuals despite their age. Regarding sex, the preponderance of females may be related to problems due to pregnancy, childbirth or the mobility of the population (especially males) for different reasons such as transhumance, trade, etc. The last part takes into account osteometric data, epigenetic characters and the paleopathology aspects.

La técnica al fresco, ejecutada con cal en pasta como material conglomerante, ha sido utilizada desde hace miles de años. No obstante, los procesos físico-químicos y cristalográficos que hacen posible la pintura al fresco han sido descritos de manera generalista como parte del proceso de carbonatación del propio enlucido. Al aproximarse a la técnica desde el punto de vista del pintor-estucador, se observa que la evolución del film superficial del fresco durante las horas del periodo de ejecución -periodo de entre 0-20 horas, aproximadamente- no es correlacionable con la evolución de los estratos que conforman el enlucido: su textura, rigidez y compacidad son particulares. El motivo de esta tesis es investigar la formación y desarrollo de este film superficial. Para ello se ha recurrido a la caracterización de pinturas al fresco antiguas del periodo romano y románico y se han comparado con probetas experimentales de fresco. Mediante este proceso se ha observado la presencia de un film de aspecto geliforme en el conjunto de pinturas caracterizadas, tanto en las antiguas como en las probetas experimentales. Para la caracterización, estudio de la formación y evolución de este film geliforme se ha realizado un conjunto de probetas experimentales de fresco que han sido estudiadas pormenorizadamente durante un intervalo temporal de 0-24 horas. Además, se han incluido muestras de días, meses y años con el objetivo de evaluar la evolución de este film en el tiempo. La caracterización y observación de este film ha sido llevado a cabo mediante diversas técnicas analíticas: POM (microscopio óptico petrográfico), contaje y medición de partículas mediante tratamiento de imagen mediante el programa IMAGEJ, SEM-EDS(microscopio electrónico de barrido con análisis de rayos X) y FT-IR (espectroscopia infrarroja por transformada de Fourrier). Cabe destacar que para el desarrollo de esta investigación se ha optimizado en sistema de extracción y embutición de muestras. Esta optimización se ha considerado novedosa y ha conllevado la obtención de una patente de procedimiento. Las conclusiones indican que sobre la superficie de un enlucido/reenlucido pintado al fresco se desarrolla un gel amorfo compuesto por carbonato cálcico. Bajo este gel se sitúa una interfase en la que se desarrollan crecimientos cristalinos específicos, generados por una velocidad de crecimiento acelerada debido a una fuerte saturación, con fenómenos split growth. Esto es debido a la rápida evaporación del film acuoso creado durante la ejecución del fresco. Por debajo de esta interfase se encuentra la superficie del enlucido/reenlucido que aporta substancias y partículas que transforman rápidamente la composición y evolución del film, que adquiere en poco tiempo la naturaleza de una dispersión coloidal. La descripción y evolución de este film-gel tiene implicaciones en el campo de la investigación de la pintura al fresco, la investigación de la cal en pasta como material conglomerante y las metodologías de conservación y restauración de pinturas al fresco y pinturas murales en base a cal. / The fresco technique, executed with lime putty as conglomerating material, has been used since thousands of years ago. However, the crystallographic and physico-chemical processes which make the fresco painting possible have been described in a general way, as part of the carbonation process of the intonaco itself. When approaching the technique from the point of view of the painter-stucco plasterer, it has been observed that the evolution of the superficial film of the fresco painting during the hours of the execution period (period of 0-20 hours, approximately) does not correspond to the evolution of the stratums which form the intonaco: its texture, stiffness and compactness are specific. The reason for this thesis is to investigate the formation and development of this superficial film. For this purpose, I have turned to the characterization of antique fresco paintings from the roman and romanesque periods, and I have compared them with experimental test tubes of fresco. Thanks to this process, it has been observed the presence of a film of geliform appearance in the whole of the characterized paintings, both in the antique paintings and in the experimental test tubes. For the characterization and the formation study, as well as the evolution of this geliform film, a set of fresco experimental test tubes have been realized, and have been thoroughly studied during a time range of 0-24 hours. Moreover, samples of days, months and years have been included, with the aim of assessing the evolution of this film through time. The characterization and the observation of this film have been carried out by means of different analytical techniques: POM (Petrographic Optic Microscope), count and measurement of particles through the treatment of images by means of the program IMAGEJ, SEM-EDS (Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy with atomical X-ray Spectroscopy) and FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy). Please note that, for the development of this investigation, the system of detachment and vacuum forming of samples has been optimized. This optimization has been considered a novelty and has led to the securing of a process patent. This optimization has enabled the observation in detail of the morphological and crystallographical evolution of the pictorical film. The conclusions show that, over the surface of an intonaco/intonachino painted as a fresco, it can be seen the development of an amorphous gel composed by calcium carbonate. Below this gel, there is an interface on which specific crystalline growths are developed and evolved. These are generated in supersaturated conditions, conditions that accelerate de speed of growing promoting split growth phenomena. Thanks to the fast evaporation of the aqueous film –water and pigment-.Below this interface, the intonaco/intonachino surface can be found, that contribute with particles that convert quickly the composition and evolution of the film as to be gradually transformed in a colloidal dispersion. The description and evolution of this gel-film has consequences on the field of investigation of fresco painting, the investigation of lime putty as a conglomerating material, as well as the the preservation and restauration methodologies of fresco paintings and lime-based wall paintings.

La etapa republicana en la región extremeña se ha planteado, desde la perspectiva historiográfica, como un estadio de transición, un hito en la inflexión entre la Protohistoria y el mundo plenamente romano. El punto de partida era el de los pueblos prerromanos -lusitanos, vetones, túrdulos y célticos- que caminaban naturalmente hacia modelo social urbano, hasta que, en este proceso, las transformaciones se precipitan con la llegada de los romanos. Una lectura sesgada y poco crítica de la evidencia arqueológica podría confirmar esas tesis; sin embargo, quedaban por explicar determinados indicios materiales difícilmente entendibles en el contexto de unas sociedades locales en simple contacto con Roma durante los dos últimos siglos antes de la Era. El objetivo de la investigación fue el de definir los términos de la implantación romana en este territorio, precisar el impacto militar en el registro arqueológico en esos primeros tiempos y ponderar la relevancia de los motivos que indujeron la expansión de Roma. Con tales fines, se hace una síntesis y caracterización de la etapa republicana en los yacimientos arqueológicos de la región; se presta una especial atención al componente material de su registro y a los signos de cambio en la estratigrafía y edilicia de cada sitio. Tras un repaso por la geografía de los restos de este periodo, por la huella romana en relación con los recursos mineros y por el aspecto monetario, se opta por abundar en la dimensión identitaria del registro. Se busca identificar al componente foráneo a través de la presencia de determinados ítems definidos previamente, relacionados con la logística y actividad del ejército romano. Tratamos igualmente de precisar los términos cronológicos de todo lo anterior, a fin de lograr un encaje apropiado de la evidencia física en el contexto histórico de la expansión romana. Para ello, se insistirá en los elementos datadores y, sobre todo, en la comparación de los repertorios materiales con otros conjuntos de referencia. El resultado de la investigación permite establecer una relación muy estrecha entre la ocupación republicana de los sitios y la huella del ejército romano. En definitiva, se pone de manifiesto un interés muy destacado de Roma por los recursos minerales, especialmente argentíferos -plata y plomo-, reflejado en el rastro militar en los distritos mineros de la región. / The Republican period in the Extremadura region (southwest of Spain) has been raised from the historiographical perspective, as a transitional stage –between protohistory and the Roman world. The starting point was the Roman peoples -lusitanians, vetones, túrdulos and naturally celtics-. They were walking towards urban social model, until the changes precipitated by the arrival of the Romans. A biased and uncritical reading of archaeological evidence could confirm these theses; however, it remained to explain certain physical evidence hardly understandable in the context of local societies by simple contact with Rome during the last two centuries before the Era. The objective of the research is to define the terms of the Roman presence in this territory, specifying the military impact in the archaeological record in those early days. Also we want to weigh the relevance of the reasons which led the expansion of Rome. To achieve this aim, we have done a synthesis and characterization of the Republican period in the archaeological sites of the region. It pays special attention to the material component of its registration and the signs of change in the stratigraphy of each site and building techniques. After a review of the geography of the remains related with the mineral resources and the monetary, we were able to elaborate an analysis of the identity dimension of registration. It seeks to identify the foreign component through the presence of certain items previously defined, related logistics and activity of the Roman army. Also we want to clarify the chronological terms, in order to achieve a proper fit of the physical evidence in the historical context of the Roman expansion. To do this, it will emphasize the dates and especially in comparison with other materials repertoires reference sets. The result of this research allows us to stablish a very close relationship between the Republican occupation of the sites and the footprint of the Roman army. In short, it shows a very prominent interest of Rome for mineral resources, especially in silver and lead, as it is reflected in the military trail in the mining.

Resums pendents

La tesi és un estudi iconogràfic sobre el filòsof mallorquí Ramon Llull. En primer lloc s’estudia i analitza la codificació i l’evolució del tipus iconogràfic de Ramon Llull; en un primer moment s’inicia en l’anomenada primera generació de manuscrits dels segles XIV i XV fins arribar a les representacions del segle XIX. S’estableixen diferents models iconogràfics que abracen diferents processos i tècniques com miniatures, gravats, pintura i escultura. A continuació es tracta la iconografia narrativa dels diferents episodis de la vida de Ramon Llull, seguint els capítols de la Vita Coaetanea, primera biografia de Llull i altres biografies posteriors. El punt de partida de l’estudi són les cèlebres miniatures de Karlsruhe - primera manifestació plàstica que tracta les estacions més importants de la vida de Llull. A banda del cicle narratiu de Llull, un altre apartat està dedicat al beat envers la devoció mallorquina. Santa Pràxedis, santa Caterina Tomàs, sant Alonso Rodríguez o la venerable Anna Maria del Santíssim Sagrament són algunes de les santes i sants amb els quals el savi mallorquí es representa acompanyat. Un altre bloc rellevant tracta els diferents ordes religiosos en relació a Llull. L’orde franciscà amb sant Francesc d’Assís inicien el repertori d´imatges de sants franciscans amb Ramon Llull. La temàtica de la defensa de la Immaculada Concepció està encapçalada per la tríade dels franciscans Duns Escott, sant Bonaventura i el mateix Llull. L’orde dominicà amb l’entrevista de sant Ramon de Penyafort i el savi mallorquí, o la temàtica de les controvèrsies i els atacs a les imatges de Llull són les representacions més significatives d’aquest grup. La Companyia de Jesús també és un dels ordes religiosos que gaudeix de representacions lul·lianes. El P. Jeroni Nadal i el P. Andreu Moragues varen esser grans impulsors en el patronatge d’obres lul·lianes. El següent apartat tracta els grans programes iconogràfics que s’han dedicat al savi mallorquí. En primer lloc s’estudia el seu sepulcre del segle XV situat en la capella de la Puritat de Maria del convent de Sant Francesc de Palma de Mallorca, en segon lloc el retaule de la Santíssima Trinitat, obra de principis de segle XVI, en tercer lloc el retaule de la “capella nova del beat Ramon Llull” realitzada a principis del segle XVII, i finalment s’analitza les escenes de la vida de Ramon Llull del pintor del sis-cents Miquel Bestard. La redacció de la tesi es completa amb un apèndix documental en el qual s’ ha incorporat tota la documentació que s’ha pogut localitzar relativa a les obres artístiques. Contractes de retaules i pintures, testificacions notarials, i declaracions sobre peces artístiques lul·lianes són el contingut d´aquesta documentació. El catàleg és una altra de les parts importants de la tesis. La catalogació i la sistematització de les representacions del beat Ramon Llull ha estat una de les qüestions prioritàries. El criteri s’ha basat en dos elements claus: el tema o contingut de la representació i la cronologia. L’objetiu de l’estudi és aportar una visió diacrònica dels diferents models iconogràfics que s’han creat mitjançant l’ajuda de les fonts literàries, sobretot biografies de Llull i altres escrits, a més de fonts gràfiques com les còpies de gravats i altres repertoris plàstics amb els seus conseqüents canvis, transmissions, i permanències que s’han desenvolupat al llarg del temps. / The thesis is an iconographic study about the Majorcan philosopher, Raymond Lully. In first instance the codification and evolution of the iconographic origins of Raymond Lully are closely studied; commencing with the first set of manuscripts dating from the XIV- XV until the XIX Century. Different iconographic models are established by way of studying the different processes and techniques, such as miniatures, reliefs, paintings and sculpture. After which the close study of the iconographic narrative in all various stages of the life of Raymond Lully is observed, following the footsteps of "Vita Coaetanea" (Daily Life), the very first biography of Lully, as well as later biographies. The starting point of this study are the famous miniatures of Karlsruhe- the first plastic manifestation which treats the most important epoch in the life of Raymond Lully. Apart from the narrative aspect of Lully, another section is dedicated to the Majorcan Beatification and Majorcan Belief in general. St. Praxedes, St. Catherine Thomas, St. Alonso Rodriguez or the venerable Anne Marie of the Holy Sacrament are some of the Saints that accompany the wise Majorcan on his journey. Another relevant section deals with the various religious Orders. The Franciscan Order of St. Francis of Assisi as their leader start the repertoire of images of Franciscan Saints with Raymond Lully. The theme of the defense of the Immaculate Conception is headed by the triad of the Franciscans Duns Escotto, St. Bonaventure and the same Lully. The Dominican Order with the interview of St. Raymond of Peñafort and the wise Majorcan, or the theme of the controversies and the attacks towards the images of Lully are most significant representations. The company of Jesus is also one of the religious Orders that is involved in the Lullian representations. Father Jeffrey Nadal and Father Andreas Moragues were great pillars in the funding of Lullian works. The following section deals with the great iconographic programmes which have been dedicated to the wise Majorcan. In first instance the sepulchre of the XV Century situated in the Chapel of the Purity of Maria in the Convent of St. Francis of Palma of Majorca is studied, in second instance the altarpiece of St. Holy Trinity, work from the beginning of the XVI Century, and thirdly the altarpiece of the so-called “New Chapel of the Beatified Raymond Lully”, created at the beginning of the XVII Century, in fourth and last instance the scenes of the life of Raymond Lully are analized in the paintings of the 600's Michael Bestard. The edition of the thesis is completed by a documentation appendix in which all documentation that could be found in relation to the artistic works has been added. Contracts of altarpieces and paintings, notary accounts as well as declarations about artistic pieces by Lully are the content of this documentation. The catalogue is another of the important pieces of the thesis. The catalogisation and order of representations of the Beatified Raymond Lully has been one of the main concerns in this study. The criteria for the afore-mentioned catalogisation has been based on two elementary keys: the theme or the content of the representation and the chronology. The object of this study is to offer a diachronic vision of the different iconographic models that have been created via the help of literary sources, above all biographies of Lully and other writs, apart from other graphic sources like the copies of the reliefs and other plastic repertoires with their according changes, transmissions and remains that have evolved throughout the course of time.

La reformes eclesiàstiques imposades pel Concili de Trento (13 de desembre de 1545 – 4 de desembre de 1563) va posar les bases necessàries per a la renovació de l’Església en els territoris catòlics, com la diòcesi de Mallorca. Aquest marc contextual va ser favorable perquè la institució religiosa tingués un vertader floreixement cultural, artístic i religiós mai vist en centúries enrere. D’aquesta manera, la victòria del catolicisme es palesa en dos aspectes: l’esplendor del culte i el floreixement de les arts que exalten la puixança cultual. Aquest tesi doctoral de Bartomeu Martínez Oliver titulada Art i Església a la Mallorca del segle XVI a través de les visites pastorals del bisbe Joan Vic i Manrique (1573-1604) és innovadora pel tema, però també per l’enfocament metodològic, ja que obre noves vies per conèixer millor l’art eclesiàstic, en el seu cas de Mallorca al tombant del segle XVII, mitjançant l’anàlisi rigorós de les visites pastorals del bisbe Joan Vic i Manrique. L’autor centra l’interés en la personalitat d’un prelat extraordinari que governà la diòcesi de mallorquina durant més de trenta anys. A més de l’enèrgica aplicació dels principis reformadors tridentins, aquest bisbe valencià (que gaudia d’una conspícua cultura, no debades era nét de Jeroni Vich i Vallterra, ambaixador de Ferran el Catòlic a Roma i important col·leccionista de pintura renaixentista) va ser l’introductor de noves devocions a l’illa, per exemple la Immaculada Concepció, i va afavorir els intercanvis artístics entre Mallorca i València. La Seu de Mallorca, el santuari de Lluc i la parròquia de sant Llorenç de Selva són els exemples que serveixen a l’autor per a canalitzar els ideals de reforma de Vic i Manrique. Les visites pastorals sobre aquest punt són exhaustives. Considerades com un gran instrument de reforma tridentina, suposaren un primer contacte del bisbe amb el poble: esdevenen el símbol del nou poder episcopal. En aquest sentit, el principal objectiu del prelat Vic i Manrique era denunciar les deficiències que els visitadors observen en els costums de clergues i laics, en l’administració dels béns i rendes parroquials, o en l’estat de conservació dels temples i el parament litúrgic, sempre sotmesos a un constant desgast. En aquest sentit, les visites pastorals són un instrument ideal per demostrar aquesta adaptació, esment i perseverança de la reforma tridentina, a més de ser una font magnífica per a l’historiador de l’art per estudiar l’estat del patrimoni historicoartístic de les diferents parròquies. A través de l’estudi de diversos registres de visita pastoral podem intuir l’ordre d’una visita i els diferents punts que es tractaven, no obstant, això no pressuposa que aquest cerimonial es realitzés íntegrament en totes les visites, especialment l’administració de la confirmació i la col·lació de la tonsura, subjectes a la intervenció del bisbe. El cerimonial era el següent: l’inspecció ocular de l’església i edificis parroquials, la cura dels seus béns immoble i mobles conjuntament amb els litúrgics, i també sobre els beneficis. Les visites pastorals analitzades en aquesta tesi doctoral serviran per conèixer millor l’estat material del patrimoni artístic i l’estat espiritual de l’episcopat dels bisbes: es converteixen en mecanismes de control d’una societat totalment sacralitzada. Aquesta investigació incideix en tres coordenades que duen implícites les visites pastorals a Mallorca entre els anys d’episcopat de Vic i Manrique (1573 i 1604): mecanisme de control pastoral, reafirmació del poder religiós i un vertader sistema de recol·lecció d’informació per estudiar el patrimoni religiós. / Le riforme ecclesiastiche imposte dal Concilio di Trento (13 dicembre 1545-4 dicembre 1563) hanno posto le basi necessarie per il rinnovamento della Chiesa nei territori cattolici, come la diocesi di Maiorca. Questo quadro contestuale è stato favorevole perché l'istituzione religiosa avesse una vera e propria fioritura culturale, artistica e religiosa mai vista nei secoli precedenti. Così, la vittoria del cattolicesimo si fa evidente in due aspetti: lo splendore del culto e il fiorire delle arti che esaltano la forza della cultura. Questa tesi dottorale di Bartomeu Martinez Oliver, intitolata Arte e Chiesa nella Mallorca del Cincuecento attraverso le visite pastorali del vescovo Joan Vic i Manrique (1573-1604), è innovativa per il suo argomento, ma anche l'approccio metodologico, in quanto apre nuovi modi per conoscere meglio l'arte ecclesiastica, nel caso di Maiorca a cavallo del Seicento, attraverso l'analisi rigorosa delle visite pastorali del vescovo Joan Vic i Manrique. L'autore concentra il suo interesse nella personalità di un prelato straordinario che ha governato la diocesi di Maiorca per ben trenta anni. Oltre alla vigorosa applicazione dei principi riformatori tridentini, questo vescovo di Valencia (che godeva di una cospicua cultura, infatti era nipote di Geroni Vich i Vallterra, ambasciatore del re Ferdinando a Roma e un grande collezionista di pittura rinascimentale) è stato l’introduttore di nuove devozioni sull'isola, ad esempio l'Immacolata Concezione, e ha favorito gli scambi artistici tra Maiorca e Valencia. La Cattedrale di Maiorca, il santuario di Lluc e la parrocchia di San Lorenzo de Selva sono gli esempi che servono all’autore per incanalare gli ideali di riforma di Vic i Manrique. Le visite pastorali su questo punto sono esaustive. Considerate come uno dei principali strumenti della riforma tridentina, hanno rappresentato il primo contatto con il popolo: diventano il simbolo del nuovo potere vescovile. In questo senso, l'obiettivo principale del prelato Vic i Manrique era di denunciare le carenze che i visitatori osservano nei costumi del clero e dei laici, nell’ amministrazione dei beni e del reddito della parrocchia, o lo stato di conservazione dei templi e dei paramenti liturgici, sempre sottoposti a usura costante. In questo senso, le visite pastorali sono uno strumento ideale per dimostrare questo adattamento, attenzione e perseveranza della riforma tridentina, oltre ad essere una fonte eccellente per lo storico dell'arte allo scopo di studiare lo stato del patrimonio storico artistico delle diverse parrocchie. Attraverso lo studio di vari registri di visite pastorali, si è in grado di indovinare l'ordine di una visita così come i vari punti che si trattavano, tuttavia, questo non implica che questa cerimonia fosse realizzata integralmente in tutte le visite, soprattutto per quanto riguarda l’amministrazione della cresima e la collocazione della tonsura, soggette all'intervento del vescovo. La cerimonia era la seguente: il sopralluogo della chiesa e degli edifici parrocchiali, la cura dei loro beni mobili ed immobili insieme con i beni liturgici e addirittura sui benefici. Le visite pastorali analizzate in questa tesi dottorale servono a capire meglio lo stato materiale del patrimonio artistico e lo stato spirituale dell'episcopato dei vescovi: diventano meccanismi di controllo di una società totalmente sacralizzata. Questa ricerca si concentra su tre coordinate che portano implicite visite pastorali a Maiorca tra gli anni di vescovato di Vic i Manrique (1573 e 1604): meccanismo di controllo pastorale, riaffermazione del potere religioso ed un vero e proprio sistema di raccolta di informazione per studiare il patrimonio religioso / The ecclesiastical reforms imposed by the Council of Trent (13 December 1545-4 December 1563) laid the foundations necessary for the renewal of the Catholic Church in the territories, as the diocese of Mallorca. This contextual framework was favorable because the religious institution had real flourishing cultural, artistic and religious never seen centuries ago. Thus, the victory of Catholicism is evident in two aspects: the splendor of the cult and the flourishing of the arts that extol the strength worship. This doctoral thesis of Bartholomew Martínez Oliver entitled Art and Church in the sixteenth century Mallorca through pastoral visits the bishop Joan Vic Manrique de Lara (1573-1604) is the subject innovative, but also the methodological approach, as it opens new ways to better understand the ecclesiastical art, in the case of Mallorca at the turn of the seventeenth century, through the rigorous analysis of the pastoral visits of Bishop Joan Vic Manrique. The author focuses its interest in the personality of an extraordinary prelate who ruled the diocese of Mallorca for over thirty years. Besides the vigorous application of the principles Tridentine reformers, the bishop of Valencia (which enjoyed a conspicuous culture was not in vain grandson of Jerome and Vallterra Vic ambassador of King Ferdinand in Rome and important collector of Renaissance painting) he introduced new devotions on the island, such as the Immaculate Conception, and foster artistic exchanges between Mallorca and Valencia. Mallorca Cathedral, Luke and the sanctuary of the parish of Saint Lorenzo Selva are examples that serve to channel the author's ideals and reform Vic Manrique. Pastoral visits on this point exhaustive. Considered as a major instrument of Tridentine reform, represented a first contact with the bishop the people become the symbol of the new Episcopal power. In this regard, the main objective of the prelate Vic Manrique was to denounce the deficiencies that visitors observe the customs of the clergy and laity in the administration of parish property and income, or the state of conservation of the temples and household Liturgical always subjected to constant wear. In this sense, pastoral visits are an ideal instrument to demonstrate this adaptation, attention and perseverance of the Tridentine reform, besides being an excellent source for the art historian to study the state of the historical heritage different parishes. Through the study of various pastoral visit records can guess the order and visit the various points that were treated, however, this does not imply that this ceremony was realized in full in all visits, especially administration confirmation and collation of tonsure, subject to the intervention of the bishop. The ceremony was: the visual inspection of the church and parish buildings, the care of their property and assets together with the liturgical furniture and also the benefits. Pastoral visits analyzed in this research will be used to better understand the state of the art heritage material and spiritual state of the episcopate of bishops become control mechanisms of a society totally sacralised. This research focuses on three coordinates that carry implicit pastoral visits to Mallorca between bishops of Vic and Manrique (1573 and 1604): control mechanism pastoral reaffirmation of religious power and a true system of data collection to study the religious heritage.