This study has successfully identified transcripts differentially expressed in the salivary gland and midgut and provides candidate genes that are critical to response to parasite invasion. Furthermore, an open-source Glossina resource (G-ESTMAP) was developed that provides interactive features and browsing of functional genomics data for researchers working in the field of Trypanosomiasis on the African continent.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This study has successfully identified transcripts differentially expressed in the salivary gland and midgut and provides candidate genes that are critical to response to parasite invasion. Furthermore, an open-source Glossina resource (G-ESTMAP) was developed that provides interactive features and browsing of functional genomics data for researchers working in the field of Trypanosomiasis on the African continent. / South Africa

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this dissertation three computational approaches are presented that enable optimization of reference-free transcriptome reconstruction. The first addresses the selection of bona fide reconstructed transcribed fragments (transfrags) from de novo transcriptome assemblies and annotation with a multiple domain co-occurrence framework. We showed that selected transfrags are functionally relevant and represented over 94% of the information derived from annotation by transference. The second approach relates to quality score based RNA-seq sub-sampling and the description of a novel sequence similarity-derived metric for quality assessment of de novo transcriptome assemblies. A detail systematic analysis of the side effects induced by quality score based trimming and or filtering on artefact removal and transcriptome quality is describe. Aggressive trimming produced incomplete reconstructed and missing transfrags. This approach was applied in generating an optimal transcriptome assembly for a South African isolate of V. inaequalis. The third approach deals with the computational partitioning of transfrags assembled from RNA-Seq of mixed host and pathogen reads. We used this strategy to correct a publicly available transcriptome assembly for V. inaequalis (Indian isolate). We binned 50% of the latter to Apple transfrags and identified putative immunity transcript models. Comparative transcriptomic analysis between fungi transfrags from the Indian and South African isolates reveal effectors or transcripts that may be expressed in planta upon morphogenic differentiation. These studies have successfully identified V. inaequalis specific transfrags that can facilitate gene discovery. The unique access to an in-house draft genome assembly allowed us to provide preliminary description of genes that are implicated in pathogenesis. Gene prediction with bona fide transfrags produced 11,692 protein-coding genes. We identified two hydrophobin-like genes and six accessory genes of the melanin biosynthetic pathway that are implicated in the invasive action of the appressorium. The cazyome reveals an impressive repertoire of carbohydrate degrading enzymes and carbohydrate-binding modules amongst which are six polysaccharide lyases, and the largest number of carbohydrate esterases (twenty-eight) known in any fungus sequenced to date

Leishmania é um gênero de protozoários tripanossomatídeos, dimórficos, causadores das leishmanioses. As espécies do subgênero Viannia, como Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, são causadoras da leishmaniose cutânea e cutâneo-mucosa nas Américas Central e do Sul. A regulação da expressão gênica em Leishmania ocorre preferencialmente no nível póstranscricional com a participação de elementos regulatórios de ação cis e trans e proteínas ligantes de RNA. Neste contexto, RNAs não codificadores (ncRNAs) conhecidos por seus papéis regulatórios em diversos organismos, ainda são pouco explorados em Leishmania. Sendo assim, o presente estudo analisou o transcriptoma de L. braziliensis explorando o conteúdo codificador e não codificador do parasita. A investigação de expressão diferencial (DE), incluindo análises de enriquecimento de ontologias gênicas, confirmou padrões de expressão, por categoria funcional, como os já reportados para outras espécies de Leishmania durante o desenvolvimento. No entanto, a avaliação do conjunto desses genes DE, empregando a ortologia como parâmetro, sugeriu uma possível contribuição de genes parálogos para a diversidade entre espécies de Leishmania. Para a análise de ncRNAs, um pipeline desenvolvido por Patrícia C. Ruy possibilitou a identificação e caracterização de 11372 ncRNAs putativos em L. braziliensis. Análises acerca dos padrões de expressão diferencial foi conduzido e trinta e cinco ncRNAs putativos foram categorizados, selecionados e submetidos a Northern blotting para avaliação do tamanho e confirmação do padrão de expressão; seis genes foram selecionados para análises funcionais subsequentes. Para avaliação de uma possível função para os ncRNAs a serem investigados, foram gerados parasitos nocaute de cinco desses ncRNAs. O crescimento dos parasitos nocaute em cultura axênica não foi afetado pela ausência dos genes mas o perfil de infecção de macrófagos in vitro foi afetado em 4 dos 6 transfectantes; sugerindo que os ncRNAs sejam funcionais. Cinco ncRNAs foram submetidos a ensaios de pull-down e o conjunto de proteínas ligantes desses transcritos foi identificada. Esse estudo do transcriptoma de L. braziliensis contribui para o entendimento da modulação da expressão dos genes codificadores de proteínas, revela o conteúdo de ncRNA putativos, sua expressão diferencial durante o seu desenvolvimento e ensaia os primeiros estudos funcionais sobre os últimos / Leishmania is a genus of trypanosomatid protozoan parasites, causative agents of leishmaniases. Viannia sub-genera species as Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis are the causative agents of cutaneous and muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis in Central and South America. The gene expression in this parasites is regulated via post-transcriptional mecanisms comprising the action of cis and trans regulatory elements and RNA binding proteins. In this context, non coding RNAs poorly explored as putative factors involved in regulation of gene expression in Leishmania must be investigated. In this study the transcriptome of coding and ncRNAs of L. braziliensis were analysed. Differential expression analysis, including gene ontology enrichment analysis, during the parasite development revealed the expected paterns for gene expression in Leishamnia spp. A comparative analysis, considering up-regulated genes suggested a contribution of paralogues genes to diversity between Leishmania. spp. To uncover putative ncRNAs, a computational pipeline was previous designed identifying and characterizing 11,372 putative ncRNAs in L. braziliensis, allowing a classification into different ncRNAs classes. The differential expression analysis revealed similar patterns to those observed for protein coding genes. Thirty-five putative ncRNAs were categorized, selected and subjected to Northern blotting being 6 of them selected to functional analysis. These selected group was investigated conducting and stablishing knockout lines, that revealed phenotypic differences concerning diminishing in promastigote growth and in vitro macrophage infection, suggesting possible functional roles of ncRNAs in L. braziliensis. Finnaly, the protein interactions of these ncRNAs were revealed and must be explored in the future to uncover possible regulatory roles of this ncRNAs until now, putative in L. braziliensis. This work represents an outline of L. braziliensis transcriptome contributing to improve the understanding of coding and noncoding RNA content in the parasite

No description available.

Both insect parasitic/entomopathogenic nematodes and plant parasitic nematodes are of great economic importance. Insect parasitic/entomopathogenic nematodes provide an environmentally safe and effective method to control numerous insect pests worldwide. Alternatively, plant parasitic nematodes cause billions of dollars in crop loss worldwide. Because of these impacts, it is important to understand how these nematodes evolve, and, in the case of entomopathogenic nematodes, how their bacterial symbionts evolve. This dissertation contains six chapters. Chapter one is a review of DNA markers and their use in the phylogenetic systematics of entomopathogenic and insect-parasitic nematodes as well as a review of phylogenetic, co-phylogenetic, and population genetic methodologies. Chapter two characterizes positive destabilizing selection on the luxA gene of bioluminescent bacteria. Our data suggests that bacterial ecology and environmental osmolarity are likely driving the evolution of the luxA gene in bioluminescent bacteria. Chapter 3 examines relationships among bacteria within the genus Photorhabdus. Our analyses produced the most robust phylogenetic hypothesis to date for the genus Photorhabdus. Additionally, we show that glnA is particularly useful in resolving specific and intra-specific relationships poorly resolved in other studies. We conclude that P. asymbiotica is the sister group to P. luminescens and that the new strains HIT and JUN should be given a new group designation within P. asymbiotica. Chapter 4 characterizes the morphology of the head and feeding apparatus of fungal feeding and insect infective female morphs of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola using scanning electron microscopy. Results showed dramatic differences in head, face, and stylet morphology between the two D. siricidicola female morphs that were not detected in previous studies using only light microscopy. Chapter five utilizes comparative transciptomics to identify putative plant and insect parasitism genes in the nematode Deladenus siricidicola. Results from this study provide the first transcriptomic characterization for the nematode Deladenus siricidicola and for an insect parasitic member of the nematode infraorder Tylenchomorpha. Additionally, numerous plant parasitism gene homologues were discovered in both D. siricidicola libraries suggesting that this nematode has co-opted these plant parasitism genes for other functions. Chapter six utilizes a phylogenomic approach to estimate the phylogeny of the nematode infraorder Tylenchomorpha.

Ophioderma longicauda (Bruzelius, 1805) est un complexe d’espèces cryptiques incluant six lignées mitochondriales (L1-L6), dont certaines (L2-L3-L4) incubent leur descendance, alors que d'autres se reproduisent probablement via des larves lécithotrophes. Afin de définir les limites d’espèces dans le complexe O. longicauda, le statut reproductif des lignées L1 et L3 a été étudié. L’analyse morphologique et génétique a montré qu’il s’agissait d’espèces biologiques différentes, avec notamment différentes périodes de reproduction. De plus, l’analyse par DAPC de 31 marqueurs génétiques a montré que le complexe O. longicauda était constitué de six groupes génétiques distincts. Deuxièmement, l’influence des traits d’histoire de vie sur la connectivité et la diversité génétique a été étudiée. Pour ce faire, 10 marqueurs ont été séquencés pour six populations sympatriques des lignées L1 et L3 en Grèce. La structure génétique était très marquée pour l’espèce incubante L3, tandis que l’espèce dispersante L1 n’a pas montré de structure génétique à cette échelle. L’analyse de la diversité génétique pour ces 10 marqueurs a montré que celle des dispersantes était trois à quatre fois plus élevée que celle des incubantes. De plus, l’analyse de la diversité génétique dans les transcriptomes des L1 et L3 a montré qu’elle était 1.5 à 2 fois plus élevée chez les dispersantes que chez les incubantes. Finalement, deux canaux ioniques impliqués dans la mobilité des spermatozoïdes ont montré une évolution sous sélection positive. Ces résultats suggèrent que la compétition des spermatozoïdes pourrait être un mécanisme d’isolement pré-zygotique chez Ophioderma longicauda. / Ophioderma longicauda (Bruzelius, 1805) is a cryptic species complex including six mitochondrial lineages (L1-L6), of which three (L2-L3-L4) brood their juveniles, whereas the other lineages most likely reproduce using lecithotrophic larvae. In order to define the species limits in the O. longicauda complex, the reproductive status of lineages L1 and L3 was studied. The morphological and genetic study showed that they were different biological species, with notably different reproductive periods. In addition, the analysis of 31 genetic markers using DAPC showed that the O. longicauda complex included six distinct genetic groups. Secondly, the influence of life-history traits on connectivity and genetic diversity was studied. To do so, 10 markers were sequenced for six sympatric populations of lineages L1 and L3 from Greece. The genetic structure was high for the brooding species, whereas the broadcasting species did not display any genetic structure at that scale. The analysis of genetic diversity for these 10 markers showed that diversity was three to four times higher in broadcasters than in brooders. In addition, the analysis of genetic diversity in the L1 and L3 transcriptomes showed that diversity was 1.5 to 2 times higher in broadcasters than in brooders. Finally, two ion channels involved in sperm motility showed an evolution under positive selection. These results suggest that sperm competition might be a mechanism of pre-zygotic isolation in Ophioderma longicauda.

Les adaptations florales à des pollinisateurs comme les changements de forme de la corolle entraînent souvent un isolement reproducteur et donc la spéciation. Malgré leur importance écologique, les mécanismes génétiques à l'origine de cette diversité de caractères sont encore mal compris, surtout en dehors des espèces modèles. L’objectif de mon projet de maîtrise était donc d'identifier les gènes impliqués dans la variation de la forme de la corolle entre deux espèces du genre Rhytidophyllum (famille des Gesneriaceae), qui ont des modes de pollinisation différents. La première, R. rupincola, a des fleurs tubulaires et est strictement pollinisée par les colibris, tandis que la seconde, R. auriculatum, a des fleurs plus ouvertes et est pollinisée par les colibris et les chauves-souris. Dans cette étude, nous avons fait une revue de littérature et utilisé une approche de transcriptomique comparative pour identifier des gènes candidats qui pourraient expliquer la variation de la forme florale entre R. auriculatum et R. rupincola. Nous avons ensuite testé leur association avec la variation de la forme de la corolle en utilisant la cartographie de loci de traits quantitatifs (QTLs) pour une population hybride F2. Les résultats ont montré que 7 des 29 gènes candidats étaient associés à 8 QTLs différents. La répartition et la fonction supposée de ces gènes suggèrent que la forme de la corolle est un trait complexe. Ce type d'étude est rarement entrepris chez des espèces non-modèles, mais il est important afin d'intégrer la génétique du développement floral dans une perspective évolutive. / Floral adaptations to specific pollinators like corolla shape changes often result in reproductive isolation and thus speciation. But despite their ecological importance, the genetic mechanisms behind this diversity of traits are still poorly understood, especially outside model species. Hence, our goal is to identify genes involved in corolla shape variation between two species of the Rhytidophyllum genus (Gesneriaceae family) from the West Indies, which is characterized by shifts in pollination modes during its evolution. The first one, R. rupincola, has a tubular corolla and is strictly pollinated by hummingbirds. The second one, R. auriculatum, has more open flowers and is pollinated by both hummingbirds and bats. We know from previous work that the variation in morphological floral traits between these species is explained by a few quantitative trait loci (QTLs) of moderate to small effect (Alexandre et al., 2015), but we still do not know which genes underly these loci. In this study, we surveyed the literature and used a comparative transcriptomic approach to identify candidate genes that could explain floral variation between R. auriculatum and R. rupincola. We then tested their association with corolla shape variation using QTL mapping for a F2 hybrid population. Results showed that 7 out of 29 candidate genes were included within 8 different QTL. The number, repartition and putative function of these genes suggest that corolla shape is a complex trait. This sort of investigation is rarely undertaken in non-model species, but is important to integrate developmental genetics with an evolutionary perspective.

Les systèmes sexuels et les mécanismes responsables de la détermination du sexe chez les animaux sont issus de stratégies diverses. Cette incroyable diversité se reflète notamment chez les bivalves, où autant les facteurs génétiques qu’environnementaux y jouent un rôle, avec des espèces utilisant divers modes de reproduction, tels que le gonochorisme ou l’hermaphroditisme simultané ou séquentiel. La découverte la plus notable est celle d’un système de déterminisme sexuel unique qui impliquerait les mitochondries. Spécifiquement, un système de transmission sexe-spécifique de l’ADN mitochondrial, connu sous le nom de DUI (« Double Uniparental Inheritance » ou double transmission uniparentale), serait lié au maintien du gonochorisme chez certaines espèces de bivalves. La DUI implique un ADN mitochondrial qui est transmis de façon maternelle (ADNmt F) aux femelles et aux mâles, et l’autre transmis de façon paternelle (ADNmt M) aux mâles seulement. Les ADNmt F et M chez les espèces à DUI sont caractérisés par des traits uniques, comme une modification du gène cox2, ou encore la présence de nouveaux gènes associés à chacun des génomes mitochondriaux (des gènes sexe-spécifiques) qui ont une fonction autre que la production d’énergie contrairement aux autres gènes mitochondriaux typiques. Le lien entre la DUI et la détermination du sexe étant encore flou, trois approches ont été proposées pour aider à le démystifier, chacune des approches constituant un chapitre de cette thèse. Les deux premiers chapitres se sont concentrés sur des espèces de moules d’eau douce de l’ordre des Unionida, où une corrélation entre gonochorisme et DUI et hermaphroditisme et SMI (« Strictly Maternally Inheritance » ou transmission strictement maternelle) a été décrite. La première approche consistait à produire une analyse transcriptomique comparative entre les gonades mâles et femelles de deux espèces à DUI gonochoriques, Venustaconcha ellipsiformis et Utterbackia peninsularis (famille Unionidae), pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents à la détermination du sexe et à la DUI chez ces bivalves. Cette étude a révélé 12 000 gènes orthologues, avec 2 583 gènes différentiellement exprimés chez les deux espèces, dont les gènes Sry, Dmrt1 et Foxl2 connus pour être des éléments clés dans la détermination du sexe chez les vertébrés et d’autres bivalves. Nos résultats ont aussi été comparés avec d’autres espèces à DUI, notamment avec la palourde marine Ruditapes philippinarum, pour identifier des éléments partagés entre des espèces éloignées qui pourraient être responsables de la régulation de la DUI. Globalement, ces résultats corroborent l'hypothèse selon laquelle un mécanisme d'ubiquitination modifié pourrait être responsable de la rétention de l'ADNmt paternel chez les bivalves mâles. Les analyses ont aussi révélé que la méthylation de l'ADN pourrait être impliquée dans la régulation de la DUI. Une deuxième analyse transcriptomique comparative a été réalisée afin de discerner les mécanismes sous-jacents à la détermination du sexe et à la DUI, mais cette fois-ci entre l’espèce à DUI gonochorique U. peninsularis et l’espèce proche parente à SMI hermaphrodite U. imbecillis. Cette étude a permis de supporter l’hypothèse d’une implication des mécanismes d’ubiquitination et de méthylation dans la régulation de la DUI, ainsi que de confirmer un rôle des gènes conservés liés à la détermination du sexe également chez les bivalves hermaphrodites. Nos résultats ont également révélé de nouveaux gènes candidats ayant des rôles potentiels dans la DUI, y compris des nucléases et des facteurs impliqués dans l’autophagie / mitophagie. Finalement, afin d’identifier des éléments génétiques mitochondriaux qui pourraient faire partie des mécanismes sous-jacents à la DUI et la détermination du sexe chez les bivalves, nous avons séquencé les ADNmt F et M complets de deux nouvelles espèces à DUI de deux familles de l’ordre des Venerida, Scrobicularia plana (famille Semelidae) et Limecola balthica (famille Tellinidae). En effet, la description complète des ADNmt chez les espèces à DUI a été effectuée chez plusieurs espèces de moules d’eau douce (ordre Unionoida), mais peu d’espèces l’ont été pour les ordres Mytilida et Venerida. Ces études sont essentielles pour retracer des signatures génétiques mitochondriales partagées par différentes espèces à DUI. Nos résultats ont révélé les plus grosses différences de taille (>10kb) et de divergence nucléotidique (jusqu’à 50% de divergence) entre les ADNmt M et F, parmi toutes les espèces à DUI. Ces différences de taille sont principalement dues à une immense insertion (>3.5kb) dans la séquence du gène cox2 du génome mitochondrial M, chez nos deux espèces, un trait précédemment décrit chez les moules d’eau douce. Le gène cox2 des mâles de S. plana est la plus longue séquence à travers le règne animal. Une autre fonctionnalité importante portés par les ADNmt F et M est la présence de nouveaux gènes spécifiques au sexe, comme reportée chez toutes les autres espèces à DUI jsuqu’à maintenant. Les résultats combinés de cette thèse soutiennent le partage de plusieurs éléments génétiques clés entre les espèces à DUI. De plus, un parallèle avec le système CMS (« Cytoplasmic Male Sterility » ou stérilité cytoplasmique mâle) chez les plantes, les seuls autres organismes possédant un déterminisme sexuel qui implique les mitochondries, est proposé pour expliquer le rôle de l’ADNmt dans la détermination du sexe chez les espèces de bivalves à DUI. / Sexual systems and sex determining mechanisms described among animals are extraordinarily diverses. This amazing diversity is present in bivalves where both environment and genetic factors occur, leading to, among others, gonochoric and simultaneous or sequential hermaphroditic species. The most impressive discovery is a sex-determining system that would involve mitochondria. Specifically, a unique mitochondrial DNA inheritance system, known as Doubly Uniparental Inheritance (DUI), would be related to the maintenance of gonochorism in some bivalve species. DUI involves two mitochondrial DNA lineages, one that is maternally transmitted (F mtDNA) to females and males, and the other that is transmitted paternally (M mtDNA) to males only. The F and M mtDNAs, in DUI species, are characterized by unique traits, such as a modification of the cox2 gene, or the presence of new genes associated with each of the mitochondrial genomes (sex-specific genes) that have a function other than energy production, unlike other typical mitochondrial genes. Since the link between DUI and sex determination is still unclear, three approaches have been proposed to help demystify it, with each of the approaches constituting a chapter of this thesis. The first two chapters focused on freshwater mussel species of the order Unionida, where a correlation between gonochorism and DUI and hermaphroditism and SMI (Strictly Maternally Inheritance) was described. The first approach was to produce a comparative transcriptomic analysis between the male and female gonads of two gonochoric DUI species; Venustaconcha ellipsiformis and Utterbackia peninsularis (Unionidae family), to better understand the mechanisms underlying sex determination and DUI in these bivalves. This study revealed 12,000 orthologous genes, with 2 583 genes differentially expressed in both species, including Sry, Dmrt1, and Foxl2 known to be key sex-determining genes in vertebrates and other bivalve species. Our results were also compared with other DUI species, including the marine clam Ruditapes philippinarum, to identify shared elements between distant species that may be responsible for DUI regulation. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that a modified ubiquitination mechanism may be responsible for the retention of paternal mtDNA in male bivalves. The analyzes also revealed that DNA methylation could be involved in DUI regulation. 7 A second comparative transcriptomic analysis was performed to discern the mechanisms underlying sex determination and DUI between the gonochoric DUI species, U. peninsularis, and the closely related SMI hermaphroditic species, U. imbecillis. This study supported the hypothesis of an involvement of ubiquitination and methylation mechanisms in DUI regulation, as well as confirmed a role of conserved genes related to sex determination in hermaphroditic bivalves. Our results also revealed novel candidate genes with potential roles in DUI, including nucleases and factors involved in autophagy / mitophagy mechanisms. Finally, to identify mitochondrial genetic elements that could be part of the mechanisms underlying DUI and sex determination in bivalves, we sequenced the complete F and M mtDNAs of two new DUI species, from two families of the order Venerida; Scrobicularia plana (Semelidae family) and Limecola balthica (Tellinidae family). The complete description of mtDNAs in DUI species has been carried out for several species of freshwater mussels (Unionoida order), but very few species have been described for the orders Mytilida and Venerida. Such studies are essential for tracing mitochondrial genetic signatures shared by different DUI species. Our results revealed the largest differences in size (>10kb) and nucleotide divergence (up to 50% divergence) between M and F mtDNAs, among all DUI species. These differences in size are mainly due to a huge insertion (> 3.5kb) in the cox2 gene of the M mtDNA from both species, a trait previously described in freshwater mussels. The cox2 gene in S. plana males represents the longest cox2 sequence across the animal kingdom. Another important feature of F and M mtDNAs is the presence of new sex-specific genes, as reported in all other DUI species so far. The combined results of this thesis support the sharing of several key genetic elements among DUI species. In addition, a parallel with the Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) system in plants, the only other organisms with a sex determination system that involves mitochondria, is proposed to explain the role of mtDNA in sex determination in DUI bivalve species.

The natural environments of organisms present a multitude of biotic and abiotic challenges that require both short-term ecological and long-term evolutionary responses. Though most environmental response studies have focused on effects at the ecosystem, community and organismal levels, the ultimate controls of these responses are located in the genome of the organism. Soil nematodes are highly responsive to, and display a wide variety of responses to changing environmental conditions, making them ideal models for the study of organismal interactions with their environment. In an attempt to examine responses to environmental stress (desiccation and freezing), genomic level analyses of gene expression during anhydrobiosis of the Antarctic nematode Plectus murrayi was undertaken. An EST library representative of the desiccation induced transcripts was established and the transcripts differentially expressed during desiccation stress were identified. The expressed genome of P. murrayi showed that desiccation survival in nematodes involves differential expression of a suite of genes from diverse functional areas, and constitutive expression of a number of stress related genes. My study also revealed that exposure to slow desiccation and freezing plays an important role in the transcription of stress related genes, improves desiccation and freezing survival of nematodes. Deterioration of traits essential for biological control has been recognized in diverse biological control agents including insect pathogenic nematodes. I studied the genetic mechanisms behind such deterioration using expression profiling. My results showed that trait deterioration of insect pathogenic nematode induces substantial overall changes in the nematode transcriptome and exhibits a general pattern of metabolic shift causing massive changes in metabolic and other processes. Finally, through field observations and molecular laboratory experiments the validity of the growth rate hypothesis in natural populations of Antarctic nematodes was tested. My results indicated that elemental stoichiometry influences evolutionary adaptations in gene expression and genome evolution. My study, in addition to providing immediate insight into the mechanisms by which multicellular animals respond to their environment, is transformative in its potential to inform other fundamental ecological and evolutionary questions, such as the evolution of life-history patterns and the relationship between community structure and ecological function in ecosystems.