This thesis discusses the modeling of a micro-grid with photovoltaic (PV)-wind-fuel cell (FC) hybrid energy system and its operations. The system consists of the PV power, wind power, FC power, static var compensator (SVC) and an intelligent power controller. Wind and PV are primary power sources of the system, and an FC-electrolyzer combination is used as a backup and a long-term storage system. A simulation model for the micro-grid control of hybrid energy system has been developed using MATLAB/Simulink. A SVC was used to supply reactive power and regulate the voltage of the hybrid system. To achieve a fast and stable response for the real power control, the intelligent controller consists of a Radial Basis Function Network-Sliding Mode Control (RBFNSM) and a General Regression Neural Network (GRNN) for maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The pitch angle of wind turbine is controlled by RBFNSM, and the PV system uses GRNN, where the output signal is used to control the DC/DC boost converters to achieve the MPPT.

Trotz aller technischen Weiterentwicklungen in der Vergangenheit unterscheiden sich moderne elektronische Tachymeter in ihrer Grundkonstruktion nicht wesentlich von ihren analogen Vorgängern. Ihnen allen ist gemeinsam, dass eine Visur um den Nadir nicht möglich ist. Dies bedeutet, dass Punkte, welche sich in einem Zenitwinkelbereich zwischen ca. 170 und 230 gon befinden, nicht direkt gemessen werden können. Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher die Entwicklung eines Systems, mit welchem tachymetrische Messungen auch in einem Zenitwinkelbereich zwischen 170 und 230 gon möglich sind. Das Konzept basiert auf dem aus dem Markscheidewesen bekannten Hängetheodolit. Um Messungen im Bereich des Nadirs durchführen zu können, wird ein Tachymeter ähnlich einem Hängetheodolit in hängender Position montiert. In dieser Position ist der zur Horizontierung dienende interne elektronische Neigungskompensator jedoch nicht funktionsfähig. Die Horizontierung wird daher extern überwacht. Zu diesem Zweck wird das Tachymeter über eine geeignete Aufhängevorrichtung mit einem Neigungssensor verbunden. Die Kombination aus in hängender Position montiertem Tachymeter und externem Neigungssensor wird als Hängetachymeter bezeichnet. Bei der Kombination des Systems mit einem externen Neigungssensor kann eine geringe Abweichung zwischen der Stehachse des Tachymeters und der Lotachse des Neigungssensors fertigungsbedingt nicht vermieden werden. Zur Bestimmung dieser Abweichung wurden geeignete Verfahren entwickelt und auf ihre Genauigkeit untersucht. Die mit dem Tachymeter ermittelten Messwerte werden durch Instrumentenabweichungen beeinflusst und müssen um diese korrigiert werden. Auch sind die Messwerte um die mit dem externen Neigungssensor ermittelte Stehachsenneigung zu korrigieren. Die Achsenabweichungen des Tachymeters müssen in hängender Position bestimmt werden. Es kann nicht generell vorausgesetzt werden, dass diese mit den in aufrechter Position bestimmten Werten übereinstimmen. Zur Steuerung des Hängetachymeters wurde eine Software entwickelt, in welche die Kalibrierung der Sensoren, die Auswertung und Korrektur der Messwerte, deren Speicherung und Weiterverarbeitung sowie der Datenexport integriert wurden. Eine Kombination des Hängetachymeters mit einer Okularkamera ermöglicht die automatische Zielerkennung und -verfolgung nichtsignalisierter Punkte auch bei Messungen nahe dem Nadir. Zur Realisierung eines Autofokus wurde das Hängetachymeter mit einem Schrittmotor kombiniert, welcher über den Fokussierring des Tachymeters die Fokussierlinse bewegt. Eine Autofokusfunktion wurde auf Grundlage des Bildkontrastes entwickelt. Die Kalibrierung der Okularkamera basiert auf einer Modellierung des Abbildungsprozesses durch lineare Funktionen. Hierbei wurde die Abhängigkeit der Kalibrierwerte von der Position der Fokussierlinse (Position des Schrittmotors) aufgezeigt. Die zur optischen Zielerkennung eingesetzten Bildverarbeitungsalgorithmen gliedern sich in eine manuelle Punktanzielung im Bild, die Messung punktförmiger Muster durch Kantendetektion und Ellipsenanpassung und Bildzuordnungsverfahren nach der Methode der kleinsten Quadrate. Um die Leistungsfähigkeit des Hängetachymeters zu bestimmen, aber auch um die Güte der Kalibrierung zu testen, wurden mehrere Genauigkeitsuntersuchungen durchgeführt. Abschließend wurde das Hängetachymeter auch erfolgreich in der Industrievermessung eingesetzt und eine automatische Kalibrierroutine ohne Interaktion des Benutzers entwickelt. Die erreichten Genauigkeiten des Systems liegen im Bereich der Genauigkeiten des eingesetzten Tachymeters. / Despite all technical enhancements in the past modern electronic tacheometers do not differ significantly to their analogue predecessors. All have in common that aiming around the nadir is not possible. This means that points situated in the zenith angle region between ca. 170 to 230 gon cannot be measured directly. Therefore the subject of the present work was the development of a system that makes measurements in the zenith angle region between 170 and 230 gon possible. The concept is based upon the suspended theodolite which is known in mine-surveying. To carry out measurements in the region of the nadir a total station is mounted in a hanging position similar to a suspended theodolite. However the function of the tilt compensator which is used for levelling of the instrument is not supported in this position. Hence inclination is monitored externally. For this purpose the tacheometer is connected to a clinometer by an appropriate suspension arrangement. The combination of a tacheometer mounted in a suspended position and an external clinometer is called suspended tacheometer. Combining the system with an external clinometer a marginal variation occurs between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the plummet axis of the clinometer due to production conditions. To quantify this variation an appropriate method was developed and its accuracy tested. Measurements conducted by the tacheometer are influenced by the variations of the instrument and must therefore be adjusted. Moreover these measurements must be adjusted by the inclination detected by the external clinometer. The axis variations of the tacheometer must be determined in suspended position. It cannot be generally presumed that these measurements comply with the ones determined in upright position. To actuate the suspended tacheometer a software was developed. This software also offers integrated functions for calibration of the sensors, analysis and adjustment of the measurements and their storage and processing as well as export of data. A combination of the suspended tacheometer with an ocular camera makes automatic target detection and tracking of non-cooperative signals possible also when measuring near the region of the nadir. To realize an autofocus the suspended tacheometer was combined with a stepper motor which moves the focus lens. Based on the image contrast an autofocus function was developed. The calibration of the ocular camera is based on modelling the mapping process by linear functions. Here the dependency of calibration values on the position of the focus lens (position of the stepping motor) was demonstrated. Image processing algorithms used for optical target detection can be divided into manual target detection in the image, measurement of point-shaped patterns by edge detection and ellipse adjustment and image allocation operations (Least squares matching). To determine the efficiency of the suspended tacheometer as well as to test the performance of the calibration several accuracy tests were performed. Also the suspended tacheometer was successfully deployed in industrial surveying. An automatic calibration routine without participation of a user was developed. The achieved accuracies of the system correspond with the accuracies of the inserted tacheometer.

<p>In this thesis, controllers for power oscillation damping, transient stability improvement and power flow control by means of a Controlled Series Compensator (CSC) and and a Dynamic Power Flow Controller (DPFC) are proposed. These devices belong to the group of power system components referred to as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices. The developed controllers use only quantities measured locally at the FACTS device as inputs, thereby avoiding the risk of interrupted communications associated with the use of remote signals for control.</p><p>For power systems with one dominating, poorly damped inter-area power oscillation mode, it is shown that a simple generic system model can be used as a basis for damping- and power flow control design. The model for control of CSC includes two synchronous machine models representing the two grid areas participating in the oscillation and three reactance variables, representing the interconnecting transmission lines and the FACTS device. The model for control of DPFC is of the same type but it also includes the phase shift of the internal phase-shifting transformer of the DPFC.</p><p>The key parameters of the generic grid models are adaptively set during the controller operation by estimation from the step responses in the FACTS line power to the changes in the line series reactance inserted by the FACTS device. The power oscillation damping controller is based on a time-discrete, non-linear approach which aims to damp the power oscillations and set the desired power flow on the FACTS line by means of two step changes in the line reactance separated in time by half an oscillation cycle.</p><p>A verification of the proposed controllers was done by means of digital simulations using power system models of different complexities. The CSC and DPFC controllers were shown to significantly improve the small-signal- and transient stability in one four-machine system of a type commonly used to study inter-area oscillations. The CSC controller was also tested for 18 different contingencies in a 23-machine system, resulting in an improvement in both the system transient stability and the damping of the critical oscillation mode. </p>

Buildup dose of Mega Voltage (MV) photon beams can be a limiting factor in intensitymodulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatments. Excessive doses can cause patient discomfort and treatment interruptions, while underdosing may lead to local failure. Many factors which contribute to buildup dose, including the photon beam energy spectrum, scattered or contaminant radiation and their angular distribution, are not modeled well in commercial treatment planning systems. The accurate Monte Carlo method was employed in the studies to estimate the doses. Buildup dose of 6MV photon beams was investigated for three fundamentally different IMRT modalities: between Helical TomoTherapy and traditional opposed tangential beams, solid IMRT and multileaf collimator (MLC)-based IMRT techniques. Solid IMRT, as an alternative to MLC, achieves prescription dose distribution objectives, according to our study. Measurements and Monte Carlo calculations of buildup dose in chest wall treatment were compared between TomoTherapy IMRT and traditional tangential-beam technique. The effect of bolus in helical delivery was also investigated in this study. In addition, measurements and Monte Carlo calculations of buildup dose in solid IMRT and MLC based IMRT treatment modalities were compared. A brass step compensator was designed and built for the solid IMRT. Matching MLC step sequences were used for the MLC IMRT. This dissertation also presents the commissioning of a Monte Carlo code system, BEAMnrc, for a Varian Trilogy linear accelerator (LINAC) and the application in buildup dose calculation. Scattered dose components, MLC component dose and mean spectral energy for the IMRT treatment techniques were analyzed. The agreement between measured 6MV and calculated depth dose and beam profiles was (± 1% or ±1 mm) for 10x10 and 40x40 cm2 fields. The optimum electron beam energy and its radial distribution incident on tungsten target were found to be 6 MeV and 1 mm respectively. The helical delivery study concluded that buildup dose is higher with TomoTherapy compared to the opposed tangential technique in chest wall treatment. The solid and MLC IMRT comparison concluded that buildup dose was up to 7% lower for solid IMRT compared to MLC IMRT due to beam hardening of brass.

No description available.

With the growth of power system interconnections, the economic drivers encourage the electric companies to load the transmission lines near their limits, therefore it is critical to know those limits well. One important limiting issue is the damping of inter-area oscillation (IAO) between groups of synchronous machines. In this Ph.D. thesis, the contribution of power system components such as load and static var compensators (SVC) that affect the IAO of the power system, are analysed. The original contributions of this thesis are as follows: 1-Identification of eigenvalues and mode shapes of the IAO: In the first contribution of this thesis, the eigenvalues of the IAO are identified using a correlation based method. Then, the mode shape at each identified resonant frequency is determined to show how the synchronous generators swing against each other at the specific resonant frequencies. 2-Load modelling and load contribution to damping: The first part of this contribution lies in identification of the load model using cross-correlation and autocorrelation functions . The second aspect is the quantification of the load contribution to damping and sensitivity of system eigenvalues with respect to the load. 3- SVC contribution to damping: In this contribution the criteria for SVC controller redesign based on complete testing is developed. Then the effect of the SVC reactive power on the measured power is investigated. All of the contributions of this thesis are validated by simulation on test systems. In addition, there are some specific application of the developed methods to real data to find a.) the mode shape of the Australian electricity network, b.) the contribution of the Brisbane feeder load to damping and c.) the effect of the SVC reactive power of the Blackwall substations on the active power supplying Brisbane.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / The growing demand for energy in electric systems has resulted in major operational difficulties related to voltage level control. This has led specialists to deal more strictly with the control of reactive power and voltage, mainly in the case of radial electric systems supplying seasonal loads. Amongst a variety of commercial solutions to provide voltage regulation arise the static compensators. These represent an alternative of great potential to control the power flow and improve the voltage profile of electric systems. In this context, the SCRSC or Saturated Core Reactor Static Compensator - made up of a magnetic core with special characteristics and capacitors in series and in parallel - becomes an interesting alternative, when compared to other types of equipment. The main advantages related to this product are: robustness, low cost, lower maintenance requirements and good performance. Within this scenario, the purpose of the present dissertation is to carry on further investigation related to a more comprehensive model and computational studies of transient, dynamic and steady state performance of an overall electrical system. Using a given system several studies are performed so as to highlight the equipment energization phenomena as well as the device effectiveness at compensating for system operational condition changes that require the use of voltage regulators to accomplish the power utility standards. / A crescente demanda de energia nos sistemas elétricos tem resultado em dificuldades crescentes na sua operação. Isso tem levado os especialistas a tratar o controle da potência reativa e da tensão com mais rigor, principalmente em sistemas elétricos com características radiais conciliados com cargas sazonais. Para isso, dentre as várias possibilidades encontradas no mercado, os compensadores estáticos destacam-se como uma alternativa de grande potencial para a melhoria do perfil de tensão dos sistemas elétricos. Neste cenário aparece um equipamento denominado por Compensador Estático à base de Reator a Núcleo Saturado, constituído por uma unidade magnética especial e bancos de capacitores em paralelo e em série. As propriedades construtivas e operativas deste dispositivo oferecem uma possibilidade técnica robusta, de baixo custo, com menores requisitos de manutenção e ainda, com adequado desempenho operacional no que tange ao processo da regulação dinâmica da tensão. Dentro desta linha de trabalhos, esta dissertação, complementando pesquisas anteriores, avança no sentido de oferecer uma modelagem mais completa do dispositivo e sua respectiva implementação computacional. Utilizando tais recursos, são realizados estudos investigativos sobre o desempenho do compensador em pauta diante dos processos de energização e também quando da ocorrência de súbitas variações operativas do complexo elétrico que determinam a necessidade de dispositivos para a estabilização da tensão dentro dos patamares requeridos. / Mestre em Ciências

This paper proposes two new topological arrangements consisting in connecting the AC power supply in series with two DC converters, one operating during the positive half-cycle and the other during the negative half cycle. It is noteworthy that these DC converters in series in a case are Buck EIE converters and on the other a buck. The results obtained with both arrangements are analyzed and compared. The control strategy is developed with the goal of imposing an AC voltage output within the limits imposed by the rules in order to mitigate the problems associated with Sags and Swells from the AC power supply . The principles of operation as well as the experimental and simulation results obtained in both steady and transient state are presented and validated for a 1kVA experimental prototype. Finally, some works still on progress related to this dissertation are presented, like the multilevel compensation and the three phase compensation. / Este trabalho propõe dois novos arranjos topológicos que consistem em se conectar a alimentação CA em série com dois conversores CC, um para operar durante o semiciclo positivo e o outro durante o semiciclo negativo. Vale ressaltar que estes conversores CC em série, em um caso são conversores Buck EIE e no outro um conversor Buck. Os resultados obtidos com ambos os arranjos são analisados e comparados. A estratégia de controle é desenvolvida com o intuito de impor uma tensão de saída CA dentro dos limites impostos pelas normas de forma a mitigar os problemas associados com Sags e Swells da rede de alimentação CA. Os princípios de operação, os resultados experimentais e de simulação obtidos, tanto em regime permanente quanto em condições transitórias de operação, são apresentados e validados para um protótipo experimental de 1kVA. Por fim apresentam-se os trabalhos relacionados a esta dissertação que ainda estão em desenvolvimento, que são a compensação em multinível e a compensação trifásica. / Mestre em Ciências

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / The search for solutions to the different power quality problems, in special the ones related to the voltage level compliance to the standard values has produced, up to now, an extensive range of commercial products using different techniques. Despite this recognition, the challenge for alternative strategies, presenting low cost and low maintenance properties, are very attractive and this subject is still motivating research worldwide. In this context, this dissertation is focused on the proposal of a voltage regulating device, here referred as CET (Electromagnetic Voltage Compensator), which presents an innovative design to obtain the process of voltage regulation. The main idea is based on the voltage injection, been as an additive or subtractive way, through a physical arrangement, presenting as a full electromagnetic power device. Aiming operative dynamic properties, the proposal in question, as far as their operational design concerns, is based on electronic switching and control device. The proposal outlined here will encounter emphasizes to the CET physical structure, the control unit composition and the evaluation of the electric complex performance under different voltage deviations occurrences. The studies are presented and then discussed, using the results provided by the computational simulation carried out in the time domain simulator ATP throughout its classical feature the MODELS language. / A busca por soluções para os distintos problemas da qualidade da energia elétrica, com destaque às variações das tensões de suprimento, conta, na atualidade, com uma extensa gama de produtos visando, sobretudo, a regulação dinâmica da tensão de suprimento. Não obstante tal reconhecimento, os desafios por estratégias alternativas por compensadores com propriedades operacionais e econômicas mais atrativas continuam motivando pesquisas em todo o mundo. Neste contexto, a presente dissertação encontra-se focada numa proposta de controle de um dispositivo regulador de tensão, aqui denominado por CET (Compensador Eletromagnético de Tensão), que se apresenta com uma concepção inovadora no que tange ao processo da regulação da tensão. A ideia central apoia-se na injeção série de reforços de tensão, aditiva ou subtrativa, através de um arranjo físico totalmente eletromagnético quanto às suas unidades de potência. Objetivando propriedades operativas dinâmicas, a proposta em pauta, no que tange a sua concepção operativa, fundamenta-se em chaveamentos eletrônicos controlados. À luz destes fatos, o trabalho vai de encontro a esta filosofia e ressalta a estrutura física do dispositivo, a composição da unidade de controle e avalia o desempenho do dispositivo sob condições associadas com a ocorrência de desvios de tensão. Quanto aos estudos feitos e discutidos, estes se encontram alicerçados em investigações computacionais conduzidas através da plataforma ATP e recursos oferecidos pela linguagem MODELS. / Mestre em Ciências

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / The search for solutions to the various problems of power quality, especially to voltage deviation from the standard values, account today, with an extensive range of products aiming above all the dynamic regulation of the supply voltage. Despite this recognition, the challenges to find alternatives technologies that take into account the use of compensators with more attractive operational and economic properties, are still motivating research worldwide. Among the devices based on the principle of consumption or supply of reactive power, in the 60 s came a product design nominated by Reactor Core Saturated Compensator- CERNS. This device is constituted by an inductive unit, comprising a magnetic core and windings with special features, connected in parallel with a capacitor unit. Although this equipment has been widely used in the past, the lack of publications on the subject resulted in a large gap in knowledge domain and dissemination of this technology. This fact contributed to a demand for dedicated efforts in recent years by national and international researchers. In the light of the attractions offered by this philosophy for voltage regulators, the subject has reawakened the interest for research and developments about the project, construction and operation of these compensators, thus aiming the technology domain. On the above, added to efforts previously made by national institutions, arises the present thesis aimed at providing a computational program to assist in the specification and basic design of saturated core reactors and means for determination of the equivalent electrical parameters needed to the model of the equipment proposed and implemented in the ATP simulator. Finally, performance studies are carried out to highlight and to validate the operational efficiency and computational model developed. / A busca por soluções para os distintos problemas da qualidade da energia elétrica, com destaque às variações das tensões de suprimento, conta, na atualidade, com uma extensa gama de produtos visando, sobretudo, a regulação dinâmica da tensão de suprimento. Não obstante tal reconhecimento, os desafios por estratégias alternativas em que pese o emprego de compensadores com propriedades operacionais e econômicas mais atrativas continuam motivando pesquisas em todo o mundo. Dentre os dispositivos fundamentados no princípio do consumo ou fornecimento de potências reativas, nos anos 60 surgiu uma concepção de produto, denominado Compensador a Reator a Núcleo Saturado CERNS. Este é composto, fundamentalmente, por um núcleo magnético com características e enrolamentos especiais e capacitores conectados em paralelo. Embora este equipamento tenha sido amplamente utilizado no passado, a ausência de publicações sobre o tema resultou numa grande lacuna para o conhecimento, domínio e difusão desta tecnologia. Tal fato corroborou para uma demanda de esforços dedicados nos últimos anos no âmbito nacional e internacional e, à luz dos atrativos oferecidos pela presente filosofia para os reguladores, o assunto voltou a despertar interesses para as pesquisas e desenvolvimentos visando o domínio da tecnologia para o projeto, construção e operação destes compensadores. Diante do exposto, somado a esforços já alcançados através de desenvolvimentos anteriores realizados por instituições nacionais, surge esta tese, a qual encontra-se fundamentada no desenvolvimento de uma estratégia computacional para o dimensionamento do compensador, projeto básico do reator saturado e análise de desempenho no domínio do tempo. Para tanto é utilizada a plataforma ATP, de domínio público e aceitação comprovada no cenário nacional. Por fim, estudos diversos de desempenho são conduzidos para a validação da eficácia operacional e do modelo computacional desenvolvido. / Doutor em Ciências