This thesis primarily focuses on the electrochemical properties of the H₂/H⁺ redox couple, at various metallic electrodes in room temperature ionic liquids. Initially, a comprehensive overview of room temperature ionic liquids, RTILs, compared to conventional organic solvents is presented which identifies their favourable properties and applications, followed by a second chapter describing the basic theory of electrochemistry. A third chapter presents the general experimental reagents, instruments and measurements used in this thesis. The results presented in this thesis are summarized in six further chapters and shown as follows. (1) Hydrogenolysis, hydrogen loaded palladium electrodes by electrolysis of H[NTf₂] in a RTIL [C₂mim][NTf₂]. (2) Palladium nanoparticle-modified carbon nanotubes for electrochemical hydrogenolysis in RTILs. (3) Electrochemistry of hydrogen in the RTIL [C₂mim][NTf₂]: dissolved hydrogen lubricates diffusional transport. (4) The hydrogen evolution reaction in a room temperature ionic liquid: mechanism and electrocatalyst trends. (5) The formal potentials and electrode kinetics of the proton_hydrogen couple in various room temperature ionic liquids. (6) The electroreduction of benzoic acid: voltammetric observation of adsorbed hydrogen at a Platinum microelectrode in room temperature ionic liquids. The first two studies show electrochemically formed adsorbed H atoms at a metallic Pt or Pd surface can be used for clean, efficient, safe electrochemical hydrogenolysis of organic compounds in RTIL media. The next study shows the physicochemical changes of RTIL properties, arising from dissolved hydrogen gas. The last three studies looked at the electrochemical properties of H₂/H⁺ redox couple at various metallic electrodes over a range of RTILs vs a stable Ag/Ag⁺ reference couple, using H[NTf₂] and benzoic acid as proton sources. The kinetic and thermodynamic mechanisms of some reactions or processes are the same in RTILs as in conventional organic or aqueous solvents, but other remarkably different behaviours are presented. Most importantly significant constants are seen for platinum, gold and molybdenum electrodes in term of the mechanism of proton reduction to form hydrogen.

The chemical bond – a corner stone in science and a prerequisite for life – is the focus of this thesis. Fundamental and applied aspects of chemical bonding are covered including the development of new computational methods for the characterization and rationalization of chemical interactions. The thesis also covers the study of corrosion of copper-based materials. The latter is motivated by the proposed use of copper as encapsulating material for spent nuclear fuel in Sweden. In close collaboration with experimental groups, state-of-the-art computational methods were employed for the study of chemistry at the atomic scale. First, oxidation of nanoparticulate copper was examined in anoxic aqueous media in order to better understand the copper-water thermodynamics in relation to the corrosion of copper material under oxygen free conditions. With a similar ambition, the water-cuprite interface was investigated with regards to its chemical composition and reactivity. This was compared to the behavior of methanol and hydrogen sulfide at the cuprite surface. An overall ambition during the development of computational methods for the analysis of chemical bonding was to bridge the gap between molecular and materials chemistry. Theory and results are thus presented and applied in both a molecular and a solid-state framework. A new property, the local electron attachment energy, for the characterization of a compound’s local electrophilicity was introduced. Together with the surface electrostatic potential, the new property predicts and rationalizes regioselectivity and trends of molecular reactions, and interactions on metal and oxide nanoparticles and extended surfaces. Detailed atomistic understanding of chemical processes is a prerequisite for the efficient development of chemistry. We therefore envisage that the results of this thesis will find widespread use in areas such as heterogeneous catalysis, drug discovery, and nanotechnology. / Den kemiska bindningen – en hörnsten inom naturvetenskapen och oumbärlig för allt liv – är det centrala temat i den här avhandlingen. Både grundläggande och tillämpade aspekter behandlas. Detta inkluderar utvecklingen av nya beräkningsmetoder för förståelse och karaktärisering av kemiska interaktioner. Dessutom behandlas korrosion av kopparbaserade material. Det sistnämnda är motiverat av förslaget att använda koppar som inkapslingsmaterial för hanteringen av kärnavfall i Sverige. Kvantkemiska beräkningsmetoder enligt state-of-the-art har använts för att studera kemi på atomnivå, detta i nära sammabete med experimentella grupper. Initialt studerades oxidation av kopparnanopartiklar under syrgasfria och vattenrika förhållanden. Detta för att bättre kartlägga koppar-vattensystemets termodynamik. Av samma orsak detaljstuderades även gränsskiktet mellan vatten och kuprit med fokus på dess kemiska sammansättning och reaktivitet. Resultaten har jämförts med metanols och vätesulfids kemiska beteende på ytan av kuprit. En övergripande målsättningen under arbetet med att utveckla nya beräkningsbaserade analysverktyg för kemiska bindningar har varit att överbrygga gapet mellan molekylär- och materialkemi. Därför presenteras teoretiska aspekter samt tillämpningar från både ett molekylärt samt ett fast-fas perspektiv. En ny deskriptor för karaktärisering av föreningars lokala elektrofilicitet har introducerats – den lokala elektronadditionsenergin. Tillsammans med den elektrostatiska potentialen uppvisar den nya deskriptorn förmåga att förutsäga samt förklara regioselektivitet och trender för molekylära reaktioner, och för interaktioner på metal- och oxidbaserade nanopartiklar och ytor. En detaljerad förståelse av kemiska processer på atomnivå är en nödvändighet för ett effektivt utvecklande av kemivetenskapen. Vi förutspår därför att resultaten från den här avhandlingen kommer att få omfattande användning inom områden som heterogen katalys, läkemedelsdesign och nanoteknologi. / <p>QC 20170829</p>

The chemistry of actinides in solution is a very important aspect of the nuclear fuel cycle, especially as the energy needs of the world continue to increase. However, the radio-active nature of the actinides makes experimentation very difficult and dedicated expensive instruments are required. In addition, the disposal of radio-active waste materials requires a proper understanding of their chemistry at a molecular level. To tackle the problem, and to underpin the experimental studies, in this thesis we have studied the redox chemistry and disproportionation mechanism of actinyl complexes in solution using state-of-the art computational methods. Reduction potentials of actinyl complexes in solution have been estimated in solution using density functional theory (DFT) approaches. Solvation effects were included in the quantum chemistry calculations with the conductor like polarisable continuum model (CPCM) solvation method. First of all, we have validated our computational method by studying a variety of solute cavity definitions within the CPCM solvation model and assessed the performance of a range of DFT functionals to suitable to accurately describe the actinide chemistry in solution. Penta-valent uranyl(V) ions are unstable and readily disproportionate; in this study we have explored outer-sphere electron transfer and disproportionation mechanisms to determine the stability of these ions in solution. We have found that the process of outer-sphere disproportionation is unlikely to occur in non-aqueous solutions, such as DMSO, DMF, DCM, acetonitrile and pyridine, when the uranyl(V) ion is bound with a multi-dentate organic ligand. However, our computational results hypothesise that the presence of a trace of water in the experimental conditions can promote a disproportionation reaction by protonating the uranyl(V) ‘yl’ oxygen atoms and then the electron transfer process would proceed through either inner or outer sphere mechanism. In addition, the effect of alkali metal cations on the outer-sphere disproportionation mechanisms was also studied. Overall it has been shown that DFT can be used to accurately predict the redox properties of actinyl complexes in solution and thus contributing for an effective and efficient design of nuclear material separations, proper as well as safer radioactive waste disposal.

Low-dimensional (D) materials, such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides and chalcogenide nanowires, are attractive for spintronics and valleytronics due to their unique physical and chemical properties resulting from low dimensionality. Emerging concepts of spintronics devices will greatly benefit from using 1D and 2D materials, which opens up new ways to manipulate spin. A majority of 1D and 2D materials is non-magnetic, thus their applications in spintronics are limited. The exploration, design and synthesis of new 1D and 2D materials with intrinsic magnetism and high spin-polarization remains a challenge. In addition, the valley polarization and spin-valley coupling properties of 2D materials have attracted great attention for valleytronics, which not only manipulates the extra degree of freedom of electrons in the momentum space of crystals but also proposes a new way to store the information. The computational investigation of magnetic and electronic properties of low-dimensional materials is the subject of this thesis. We have systematically investigated geometric, electronic, magnetic and valleytronic properties of several 2D and 1D materials by using the density functional theory. These investigations not only theoretically show rich and adjustable magnetic properties of...

Les détails du mécanisme d’une réaction acidobasique sont encore nébuleux au sein de la communauté scientifique. Les résultats présentés dans cet ouvrage suggèrent un modèle mécanistique général basé sur la théorie de l’état de transition pour une réaction acidobasique en milieu aqueux. Ce modèle est proposé après l’analyse méticuleuse de 56 simulations mettant en avant-plan une réaction de transfert de proton entre le phénol et l’acétate dans l’eau. Cette réaction passe par différents nombres d’acteurs, incluant l’acide, la base et le nombre de molécules d’eau impliquées dans le transfert. Ce modèle général regroupe de nombreux mécanismes par lesquels le transfert de proton survient. Il s’agit notamment de procédés impliquant différents nombres de molécules d’eau intermédiaires (1, 2, 3, 4 ou 5), mais aussi des cas où l’acide entre en contact direct avec la base et des cas où la déprotonation de l’acide semble indépendante de la base. Cette proposition présente aussi une nouvelle définition quantitative des mécanismes concerté et séquentiel jusqu’ici différenciés qualitativement dans la littérature. / The details of the acid-base reaction mechanism are still rather vague among the scientific community. The results shown in this document suggest a general mechanism predicated on the transition state theory for the acid-base reaction in an aqueous environment. This model is offered after a meticulous analysis of 56 computational simulations presenting a proton transfer reaction between a phenol derivative and the acetate ion in water. The number of actors greatly varies from one reaction to another, including the acid, the base and the numerous water molecules engaged in the transfer. This general model encompasses many sub-mechanisms leading to the proton transfer completion. Mostly, the processes involve different amounts of bridging water molecules (1, 2, 3, 4 or 5). Yet, it also showcases scenarios where the acid interacts directly with the base and some situations where the acid deprotonation seems to behave independently from the base. This proposal further offers a new, quantitative distinction between the concerted and sequential mechanisms rather than the until-now qualitative description in the literature.

<p dir="ltr">Tandem mass spectrometry (MSⁿ) has become the most widely used analytical technique for the chemical characterization of unknown organic compounds in complex mixtures. It has led to the development of a large number of mass spectrometers with different mass analyzers as well as a wide array of ionization methods. This technique can be coupled with a diverse range of chromatography methods, such as gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Some of the primary strengths of MS include its great sensitivity, its versatility to seamlessly integrate with various chromatography techniques and its flexibility in the sense of access to different mass analyzers and different ionization methods. During MS experiments, analytes are evaporated and ionized and the resulting ions are separated based on their mass-to-charge (<i>m/z</i>) ratios and then detected. On the other hand, MSⁿ experiments involve isolating a specific ion of interest from all other ions and subjecting them to reactions such as collision-activated dissociation (CAD) or ion-molecule reactions. These reactions generate product ions that can be used to obtain structural information for the analyte. In addition, MSⁿ experiments can be used to generate and study the chemical properties of reaction intermediates, such as oxenium cations. </p><p dir="ltr">The mass spectrometer and the ionization source used to perform the research discussed in this thesis are described in Chapter 2. After this, the development of experiments involving ion-molecule reactions accompanied by collision-activated dissociation in a linear quadrupole ion trap is discussed, with the goals of differentiating the aziridine functionality from structurally related functional groups, such as the amino group and identifying aromatic aldehyde functionalities in protonated oxygen-containing monofunctional analytes. The integration of machine learning with mass spectral data has become an increasingly prevalent and valuable way to interpret data faster and more accurately without human bias than conventional manual approaches. Chapter 5 discusses combining machine learning-guided automated HPLC analysis coupled with MSⁿ experiments based on diagnostic ion-molecule reactions for the structural elucidation of unknown compounds. Finally, experimental and computational studies on the gas-phase reactivity of quinoline-based ground-state singlet oxenium cations are discussed.</p>

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / In this thesis, we present novel computational methods and frameworks to address the challenges associated with the determination of free energy profiles for condensed-phase chemical reactions using combined quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical (QM/MM) approaches. We focus on overcoming issues related to force matching, molecular polarizability, and convergence of free energy profiles. First, we introduce a method called Reaction Path-Force Matching in Collective Variables (RP-FM-CV) that efficiently carries out ab initio QM/MM free energy simulations through mean force fitting. This method provides accurate and robust simulations of solution-phase chemical reactions by significantly reducing deviations on the collective variables forces, thereby bringing simulated free energy profiles closer to experimental and benchmark AI/MM results. Second, we explore the role of pairwise repulsive correcting potentials in generating converged free energy profiles for chemical reactions using QM/MM simulations. We develop a free energy correcting model that sheds light on the behavior of repulsive pairwise potentials with large force deviations in collective variables. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of force matching models, paving the way for more accurate predictions of free energy profiles in chemical reactions. Next, we address the underpolarization problem in semiempirical (SE) molecular orbital methods by introducing a hybrid framework called doubly polarized QM/MM (dp-QM/MM). This framework improves the response property of SE/MM methods through high-level molecular polarizability fitting using machine learning (ML)-derived corrective polarizabilities, referred to as chaperone polarizabilities. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the dp-QM/MM method in simulating the Menshutkin reaction in water, showing that ML chaperones significantly reduce the error in solute molecular polarizability, bringing simulated free energy profiles closer to experimental results. In summary, this thesis presents a series of novel methods and frameworks that improve the accuracy and reliability of free energy profile estimations in condensed-phase chemical reactions using QM/MM simulations. By addressing the challenges of force matching, molecular polarizability, and convergence, these advancements have the potential to impact various fields, including computational chemistry, materials science, and drug design.

No description available.

[ES] Se investigó la reacción de metano a metanol (MTM) en zeolitas y zeotipos utilizando clústeres subnanométricos de cobre soportados usando como oxidante O2 y sin la intervención de moléculas de agua en todo momento. Para empezar, se realizó en clústeres aislados de Cu5 y Cu7 para descubrir los principales caminos de reacción y así identificar los principales problemas que pueden ocurrir en cada etapa de la reacción. Se encontró que la reacción transcurre eficientemente a través de un mecanismo Eley-Rideal cuando existen átomos de O bicoordinados estabilizados en las aristas de los clústeres, conduciendo a menores barreras de activación. Sin embargo, la adsorción del grupo metilo y la formación de grupos metoxilo en los clústeres es inevitable, lo que es un importante obstáculo para el proceso. A continuación, se usó el modelo zeolítico SSZ-13 para soportar los clústeres y ver si cuando éstos se encuentran confinados en las cavidades de una zeolita con cantidades variables de Al, este sistema catalítico puede paliar los problemas relacionados con los caminos secundarios y la adsorción de los metilo. Las simulaciones en la disociación de O2 arrojaron un incremento en la carga total positiva de los clústeres Cun conforme al número de átomos de Al en la matriz zeolítica y que una mayor concentración de densidad de carga sobre los átomos de O facilita este paso. Asimismo, los clústeres Cun soportados son capaces de restringir la sobreoxidación en presencia de nuevas moléculas de O2, evitando así la formación de especies Cun-4O, lo cual puede aprovecharse para estabilizar un sistema catalítico bajo condiciones oxidantes a la vez que se mantiene un estado de oxidación metálico. Para la activación de CH4, solo el escenario con 2 átomos de Al fue contemplado. El mecanismo de reacción descubierto es análogo al encontrado en fase gas, con energías de activación de Gibbs menores a 115 kJ·mol-1 siendo similares a las vistas experimentalmente para las zeolitas de Cu intercambiado junto a una gran importancia de los estados mayores de spin, que mejoran la transferencia de H desde el metano al O bicoordinado estabilizado en el clúster. El Cu5 es capaz de convertir metano en metanol mientras evita la generación de especies CH2 y la bicoordinación de los metilo en contraposición al Cu7, el cual ofrece una alternativa peor en casi todos los aspectos. Además, los clústeres de Cu5 abren la posibilidad de producir nuevos productos como el formaldehído o el DME cuando se generan especies metoxilo en el clúster, aportando valor añadido al proceso. Por último, se estudiaron sistemas SAPO-34 y MeAPO-34 con dos átomos metálicos (Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr y Sn) para descubrir sistemas zeotipo que promuevan mejores propiedades catalíticas y unos mecanismos de reacción dirigidos a la producción de metanol. Considerando los resultados anteriores, solo se exploró la reactividad del Cu5. Estos sistemas se rigen por los mismos principios que el modelo SSZ-13, obteniendo tendencias muy similares en la carga total positiva de los cobres y en la densidad electrónica localizada en los átomos de O, las cuales varían dependiendo del metal seleccionado. No obstante, se obtuvieron mejoras en las barreras energéticas de activación para la disociación de O2 excepto para los casos del Si y el Mg, con valores entre los 34 y los 111 kJ·mol-1. Se encontraron dos candidatos capaces de realizar óptimamente la reacción MTM en comparación con el modelo SSZ-13 con dos átomos de Al en el primer ciclo de reacción con un mecanismo ER: SAPO-34 y TiAPO-34, con perfiles energéticos de Gibbs por debajo de los 80 kJ·mol-1. De hecho, el TiAPO-34 resultó el sistema más prometedor consiguiendo esto a pesar de formar un metilo bicoordinado junto a la menor energía de desorción de metanol encontrada en esta tesis, 21 kJ·mol-1. Además de evitar la producción de especies Cu5-4O al igual que la SSZ-13, el TiAPO-34 mejora las energías relativas de Gibbs con sistemas de Cu5-3O. / [CA] S'investigà la reacció de metà a metanol (MTM) en zeolites i zeotips utilitzant clústers subnanométrics de coure suportats usant com oxidant O2 i sense la intervenció de molècules d'aigua en tot moment. Per començar, es realitzà en clústers aïllats de Cu5 i Cu7 per descobrir els principals camins de reacció i així identificar els principals problemes que poden ocórrer en cada etapa de la reacció. Es trobà que la reacció transcorre eficientment a través d'un mecanisme Eley-Rideal quan existixen àtoms d'O bicoordinats estabilitzats en les aristes dels clústers, conduint a menors barreres d'activació. No obstant, l'absorció del grup metil i la formació de grups metoxil en els clústers és inevitable, cosa que és un important obstacle pel procés. A continuació s'utilitzà el model zeolític SSZ-13 per suportat els clústers i vore si quan estos es troben confinats en les cavitats d'una zeolita amb quantitats variables de Al, este sistema catalític pot paliar els problemes relacionats amb els camins secundaris i l'absorció dels metil. Les simulacions en la dissociació d'O2 llançaren un increment en la càrrega total positiva dels clústers Cun conforme al nombre d'àtoms de Al en la matriu zeolítica i que una major concentració de densitat de càrrega sobre els àtoms de O facilita este pas. Així mateix, els clústers Cun suportats són capaços de restringir la sobreoxidació en presència de noves molècules d'O2, evitant així la formació d'espècies Cun-4O, cosa que pot aprofitar-se per a estabilitzar un sistema catalític baix condicions oxidants a la volta que es manté un estat d'oxidació metàl·lic. Per a l'activació de CH4, sols l'escenari amb 2 àtoms de Al va ser contemplat. El mecanisme de reacció descobert és anàleg al trobat en fase fas, amb energies d'activació de Gibbs menors a 115 kJ·mol-1 sent similars a les vistes experimentalment per a les zeolites de Cu intercanviant junt amb una gran importància dels estats majors de spin, que milloren la transferència de H des del metà al O bicoordinat estabilitzat en el clúster. El Cu5 és capaç de convertir metà en metanol mentre evita la generació d'espècies CH2 i la bicoordinació dels metil en contraposició al Cu7, el qual oferix una alternativa pitjor en quasi tots els aspectes. A més, els clústers de Cu5 obtín la possibilitat de produir nous productes com el formaldehid o el DME quan es generen espècies metoxil en el clúster, aportant valor afegit al procés. Per últim, s'estudiaren sistemes SAPO-34 i MeAPO-34 amb dos àtoms metàl·lics (Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr i Sn) per descobrir sistemes zeotip que promouen millors propietats catalítics i uns mecanismes de reacció dirigits a la producció de metanol. Considerant els resultats anteriors, sols s'explorà la reactivitat del Cu5. Estos sistemes es rigen pels mateixos principis que el model SSZ-13, obtenint tendències molt similars en la càrrega total positiva dels coures i en la densitat electrònica localitzada en els àtoms d'O, les quals varien depenent del metal seleccionat. No obstant, s'obtingueren millores en les barreres energètiques d'activació per la dissociació d'O2 excepte pels casos del Si i el Mg, amb valors entre els i els 111 kJ·mol-1. Es trobaren dos candidats capaços de realitzar òptimament la reacció MTM en comparació amb el model SSZ-13 amb dos àtoms de Al en el primer cicle de reacció amb un mecanisme ER: SAPO-34 i TiAPO-34, amb perfils energètics de Gibbs per sota dels 80 kJ·mol-1. De fet, el TiAPO-34 resultà el sistema més prometedor aconseguint açò a pesar de formar un metil bicoordinat junt amb la menor energia de desorció de metanol encontrada en esta tesi, 21 kJ·mol-1. A més d'evitar la producció d'espècies Cu5-4O igual que la SSZ-13, el TiAPO-34 millora les energies relatives de Gibbs amb sistemes de Cu5-3O. / [EN] The catalytic behaviour of sub-nanometre copper clusters was investigated in the methane to methanol (MTM) reaction supported in zeolites and zeotypes using O2 as oxidant with no water molecules assisting the process. To begin with, the research was conducted on isolated Cu5 and Cu7 clusters in order to settle the main pathways involved in this complex reaction and to identify the main problems in each step of the reaction. It was found that the reaction can effectively proceed through an Eley-Rideal mechanism when bicoordinated oxygen atoms are stabilised at the edges of the clusters, involving relatively low activation energy barriers. However, the adsorption of the methyl group and the formation of methoxy groups on the clusters are inevitable, which entails a significant obstacle to the process. Next, an SSZ-13 zeolite model was selected as support for the copper clusters to explore whether when the clusters are confined within the cavities of an Al-containing zeolite, this catalytic system can relieve the issues encountered in isolated systems. The O2 dissociation simulations reported an increase in the total positive charge on the Cun clusters with the number of Al atoms in the zeolite framework and a more concentrated electron density over the O atoms that facilitates the dissociation step. Additionally, supported Cun clusters restrain deep oxidation in presence of new O2 molecules evading the formation of Cun-4O species, which can be exploited to stabilise a catalytic system under oxidising conditions while preserving a metallic oxidation state. For CH4 activation, only the scenario with 2 Al atoms was contemplated. The uncovered reaction mechanism is analogous to the one found in gas phase with Gibbs activation barriers less than 115 kJ·mol-1 as those reported experimentally for Cu-exchanged zeolites along with a remarkable importance of higher spin states that enhance the H transfer step from the methane to the anchored O atom on the cluster. Cu5 is able to transform methane into methanol while avoiding the generation of CH2 species and the bi-coordination of methyl groups in contrast to Cu7, which offers a worse alternative in almost every aspect. In addition, Cu5 clusters open the possibility to generate new chemicals like formaldehyde and DME when methoxy species are generated on the cluster, providing added value to the process. Lastly, SAPO-34, and MeAPO-34 models with two metal atoms (Me: Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr and Sn) were explored to foster better catalytic properties and more optimised mechanistic insights for the production of methanol. Considering the results above, only Cu5 clusters were studied. These zeotype systems follow the same principles as the SSZ-13 in reference to the total positive charge of copper atoms and more localised electron density on O atoms which vary depending on the selected metal. However, improvements on the O2 dissociation activation barriers were found except for the Si and Mg zeotypes, with values ranging from 34 to 111 kJ·mol-1. The CH4 activation in these systems resulted as reported above, an ER reaction path that cannot evade the adsorption of methyl groups; but in which two candidates were found to be more efficient than the SSZ-13 with two Al atoms in terms of a lower Gibbs energy profile for the first cycle: SAPO-34 and TiAPO-34 zeotypes, being both of them below 80 kJ·mol-1. In fact, the TiAPO-34 turned out to be the most promising system since it achieves these results despite the formation of a bicoordinated methyl group along with the lowest methanol desorption energy reported in this dissertation, 21 kJ·mol-1. To further explore the TiAPO-34 system, additional oxidation simulations were carried out, confirming the catalytic system avoids the production of Cu5-4O species just as reported in the zeolite model. The resultant Cu5-3O is alike to the one reported in SSZ-13, improving the Gibbs relative energies. / Gallego Rodríguez, M. (2024). Selective Oxidation of Methane into Methanol using Sub-Nanometre Copper Clusters: A Computational Study [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207338