<p>In the present thesis dietary markers for intake of milk fat, associations between intake of milk fat and risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD), and the effects of supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) to healthy humans are investigated.</p><p>The dietary fat quality is one of the main lifestyle factors affecting risk for CHD. When studying the associations between diet and health it is important to have accurate dietary information. Objective dietary markers increase the possibilities to interpret dietary surveys.</p><p>In a study of 62 men we demonstrated that the milk fatty acid pentadecanoic acid (15:0) measured in serum lipids can be used as marker for intake of fat from milk products. In the same study we observed inverse correlations between intake of milk fat and certain risk factors for CHD, especially anthropometric variables.</p><p>To further investigate these findings we supplemented humans with CLA, naturally present in milk. CLA has in animals and <i>in vitro</i> been ascribed positive effects on adiposity and glucose and lipid metabolism. When supplementing humans with CLA we observed a slight decrease in body fat, but no effects on other anthropometric variables or serum lipids. However, markers of lipid peroxidation and inflammation increased. From a second supplementation study we concluded that CLA <i>trans </i>10, <i>cis </i>12 induced lipid peroxidation more than did a mixture of isomers.</p><p>We conclude that the inverse associations between milk fat intake and CHD risk factors, and the effects of CLA, are interesting and need further investigation. However, according to current knowledge, the general population is still advised to have a limited intake of total and saturated fat and to instead choose unsaturated fats. In addition, there is to date no medical reasons for humans to take CLA as supplements.</p>

In the present thesis dietary markers for intake of milk fat, associations between intake of milk fat and risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD), and the effects of supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) to healthy humans are investigated. The dietary fat quality is one of the main lifestyle factors affecting risk for CHD. When studying the associations between diet and health it is important to have accurate dietary information. Objective dietary markers increase the possibilities to interpret dietary surveys. In a study of 62 men we demonstrated that the milk fatty acid pentadecanoic acid (15:0) measured in serum lipids can be used as marker for intake of fat from milk products. In the same study we observed inverse correlations between intake of milk fat and certain risk factors for CHD, especially anthropometric variables. To further investigate these findings we supplemented humans with CLA, naturally present in milk. CLA has in animals and in vitro been ascribed positive effects on adiposity and glucose and lipid metabolism. When supplementing humans with CLA we observed a slight decrease in body fat, but no effects on other anthropometric variables or serum lipids. However, markers of lipid peroxidation and inflammation increased. From a second supplementation study we concluded that CLA trans 10, cis 12 induced lipid peroxidation more than did a mixture of isomers. We conclude that the inverse associations between milk fat intake and CHD risk factors, and the effects of CLA, are interesting and need further investigation. However, according to current knowledge, the general population is still advised to have a limited intake of total and saturated fat and to instead choose unsaturated fats. In addition, there is to date no medical reasons for humans to take CLA as supplements.

No description available.

Candida albicans est une levure pathogène qui, à l’état commensal, colonise les muqueuses de la cavité orale et du tractus gastro-intestinal. De nature opportuniste, C. albicans cause de nombreuses infections, allant des candidoses superficielles (muguet buccal, vulvo-vaginite) aux candidoses systémiques sévères. C. albicans a la capacité de se développer sous diverses morphologies, telles que les formes levures, pseudohyphes et hyphes. Des stimuli environnementaux mimant les conditions retrouvées chez l’hôte (température de 37°C, pH neutre, présence de sérum) induisent la transition levure-à-hyphe (i.e. morphogenèse ou filamentation). Cette transition morphologique contribue à la pathogénicité de C. albicans, du fait que des souches présentant un défaut de filamentation sont avirulentes. Non seulement la morphogenèse est un facteur de virulence, mais elle constituerait aussi une cible pour le développement d’antifongiques. En effet, il a déjà été démontré que l’inhibition de la transition levure-à-hyphe atténuait la virulence de C. albicans lors d’infections systémiques. Par ailleurs, des études ont démontré que de nombreuses molécules pouvaient moduler la morphogenèse. Parmi ces molécules, certains acides gras, dont l’acide linoléique conjugué (CLA), inhibent la formation d’hyphes. Ainsi, le CLA posséderait des propriétés thérapeutiques, du fait qu’il interfère avec un déterminant de pathogénicité de C. albicans. Par contre, avant d’évaluer son potentiel thérapeutique dans un contexte clinique, il est essentiel d’étudier son mode d’action. Ce projet vise à caractériser l’activité anti-filamentation des acides gras et du CLA et à déterminer le mécanisme par lequel ces molécules inhibent la morphogenèse chez C. albicans. Des analyses transcriptomiques globales ont été effectuées afin d’obtenir le profil transcriptionnel de la réponse de C. albicans au CLA. L’acide gras a entraîné une baisse des niveaux d’expression de gènes encodant des protéines hyphes-spécifiques et des régulateurs de morphogenèse, dont RAS1. Ce gène code pour la GTPase Ras1p, une protéine membranaire de signalisation qui joue un rôle important dans la transition levure-à-hyphe. Des analyses de PCR quantitatif ont confirmé que le CLA inhibait l’induction de RAS1. De plus, le CLA a non seulement causé une baisse des niveaux cellulaires de Ras1p, mais a aussi entraîné sa délocalisation de la membrane plasmique. En affectant les niveaux et la localisation cellulaire de Ras1p, le CLA nuit à l’activation de la voie de signalisation Ras1p-dépendante, inhibant ainsi la morphogenèse. Il est possible que le CLA altère la structure de la membrane plasmique et affecte indirectement la localisation membranaire de Ras1p. Ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence le mode d’action du CLA. Le potentiel thérapeutique du CLA pourrait maintenant être évalué dans un contexte d’infection, permettant ainsi de vérifier qu’une telle approche constitue véritablement une stratégie pour le traitement des candidoses. / The yeast Candida albicans is an inhabitant of the oral cavity, the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts of humans. Generally encountered as a commensal, it is also an opportunistic pathogen that causes a spectrum of infections, ranging from superficial mycoses (thrush, vulvovaginitis) to severe and life-threatening systemic infections. A striking feature of C. albicans is its ability to grow in different morphological forms, including budding yeasts, pseudohyphae, and hyphae. Environmental cues that mimic host conditions (elevated temperature, neutral or alkaline pH, and serum) induce the yeast-to-hypha transition. Morphogenesis is considered to be an attribute of pathogenesis, as mutants locked as yeasts or filamentous forms are avirulent. Given that the yeast-to-hypha transition is a virulence factor, it may also constitute a target for the development of antifungal drugs. Indeed, evidence has shown that impairing morphogenesis is a means to treat systemic candidiasis. Concurrently, a number of molecules have been reported to modulate morphogenesis in C. albicans. For instance, several fatty acids, including conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), inhibited the yeast-to-hypha transition. By interfering with an important attribute of C. albicans pathogenesis, CLA may harbor antifungal properties. However, before assessing its therapeutic potential in a clinical context, it is mandatory to address CLA’s mode of action. The present study aims to further characterize the hypha-inhibiting properties of fatty acids and CLA and to elucidate the mechanism by which these molecules inhibit the yeast-to-hypha transition in C. albicans. Gene expression analyses were performed to gain insight into the transcriptional response of cells to CLA on a genome-wide scale and to probe the fatty acid’s mode of action. CLA downregulated the expression of hypha-specific genes and blocked the induction of genes encoding regulators of hyphal growth, including that of RAS1, which encodes the small GTPase Ras1p. A membrane-associated signaling protein, Ras1p plays a major role in morphogenesis. Quantitative PCR analyses showed that CLA prevented the increase in RAS1 mRNA levels which occurred at the onset of the yeast-to-hypha transition. Unexpectedly, CLA reduced the steady-state levels of Ras1p. Additionally, CLA caused the delocalization of GFP-Ras1p from the plasma membrane. These findings indicate that CLA treatment results in suboptimal Ras1p cellular concentrations and localization, which impedes Ras1p signaling and inhibits the yeast-to-hypha transition. CLA may indirectly affect Ras1p localization by altering the structure of the plasma membrane. These studies have provided the mechanism underlying CLA’s hypha-inhibiting properties and may serve as the rationale to examine CLA’s therapeutic potential in the context of a Candida infection. There is a general lack of clinical evidence demonstrating that impairing morphogenesis is a sound approach to treat candidiasis. To remedy this situation, the therapeutic potential of molecules that modulate morphogenesis, such as CLA, should be clinically assessed.

Nas pesquisas com bovinos de corte, além do bom desempenho animal e da viabilidade econômica, busca-se agregar características qualitativas à carne produzida. O fornecimento de milho alto óleo a bovinos de corte em terminação aumenta o ganho de peso e a qualidade de carcaça, quando comparado ao milho comum. Buscou-se consolidar as informações quanto aos efeitos das dietas para novilhos Nelore em confinamento, sobre os parâmetros da produção animal, como ganho de peso, rendimento de carcaça, degradabilidade das dietas, efeitos sobre os protozoários ciliados e outras medidas ruminais, parâmetros físicos do Longissimus dorsi, composição centesimal da carcaça, composição do ganho e perfil de ácidos graxos nesse músculo. Foram utilizados 48 novilhos da raça Nelore, com peso vivo inicial médio de 435 kg, submetidos a um dos seis tratamentos, usando dois tipos de milho (comum e alto óleo) e três níveis de inclusão de milho no concentrado (25%, 40% e 55%). Os animais foram confinados por um período de 84 dias. Amostras do Longissimus dorsi foram coletadas para avaliação das características físicas da carne e análise do perfil de ácidos graxos na gordura intramuscular. Os tratamentos não influenciaram o ganho de peso, o consumo de alimentos, a conversão alimentar ou os parâmetros da carcaça. A qualidade física da carne também não foi influenciada pelos tratamentos. Para as dietas contendo milho alto óleo, houve alteração na população de protozoários no rúmen e na degradação da FDN. Dietas com milho alto óleo favoreceram o aumento no total dos ácidos graxos intermediários da biohidrogenação na gordura intramuscular. Houve diferenças significativas no ácido rumênico (CLA - C18:2_cis9_trans11), passando de 0,43% para 0,49%, representando um aumento médio de 12,7%, devido ao uso de dietas contendo milho alto óleo. / Beef cattle researchers, over than animal performance and economics are looking for nutritional characteristics of the products from ruminants. Inclusion of high oil corn (HOC) on diets increases weight gain and carcass quality compared to common corn grain. This study looks for data from animal performance on diets using high oil corn, evaluating live weight gain, carcass composition, diets digestibility, dry matter degradability, effects on ciliated protozoa number and quality, muscle quality characteristics, meat composition and fatty acids profile on intramuscular fat. Where used 48 Nellore steers, with initial average live weight of 435 kg in six treatments, using two corn grain varieties (common and high oil corn) and three levels of corn grain in concentrate diets (25%, 40% and 55%). Animals were in feedlot pens for 84 days, after an adaptation period to diets and installations. The Longissimus dorsi was used for evaluating meat characteristics and fatty acids profile on intramuscular fat. There was no effect of diets on daily gain, intake, conversion, or carcass parameters. Meat quality was not also affected by treatments. Diets with high oil corn altered protozoa population and ruminal degradation of NDF. The total biohidrogenated fatty acids in intramuscular fat were increased by treatment with high oil corn and also rumenic acid. Rumenic acid was the major conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) detected in this tissue, with concentrations increasing from 0,43% to 0,49%, representing an average increase of 12,7% caused for HOC diets.

Candida albicans est une levure pathogène qui, à l’état commensal, colonise les muqueuses de la cavité orale et du tractus gastro-intestinal. De nature opportuniste, C. albicans cause de nombreuses infections, allant des candidoses superficielles (muguet buccal, vulvo-vaginite) aux candidoses systémiques sévères. C. albicans a la capacité de se développer sous diverses morphologies, telles que les formes levures, pseudohyphes et hyphes. Des stimuli environnementaux mimant les conditions retrouvées chez l’hôte (température de 37°C, pH neutre, présence de sérum) induisent la transition levure-à-hyphe (i.e. morphogenèse ou filamentation). Cette transition morphologique contribue à la pathogénicité de C. albicans, du fait que des souches présentant un défaut de filamentation sont avirulentes. Non seulement la morphogenèse est un facteur de virulence, mais elle constituerait aussi une cible pour le développement d’antifongiques. En effet, il a déjà été démontré que l’inhibition de la transition levure-à-hyphe atténuait la virulence de C. albicans lors d’infections systémiques. Par ailleurs, des études ont démontré que de nombreuses molécules pouvaient moduler la morphogenèse. Parmi ces molécules, certains acides gras, dont l’acide linoléique conjugué (CLA), inhibent la formation d’hyphes. Ainsi, le CLA posséderait des propriétés thérapeutiques, du fait qu’il interfère avec un déterminant de pathogénicité de C. albicans. Par contre, avant d’évaluer son potentiel thérapeutique dans un contexte clinique, il est essentiel d’étudier son mode d’action. Ce projet vise à caractériser l’activité anti-filamentation des acides gras et du CLA et à déterminer le mécanisme par lequel ces molécules inhibent la morphogenèse chez C. albicans. Des analyses transcriptomiques globales ont été effectuées afin d’obtenir le profil transcriptionnel de la réponse de C. albicans au CLA. L’acide gras a entraîné une baisse des niveaux d’expression de gènes encodant des protéines hyphes-spécifiques et des régulateurs de morphogenèse, dont RAS1. Ce gène code pour la GTPase Ras1p, une protéine membranaire de signalisation qui joue un rôle important dans la transition levure-à-hyphe. Des analyses de PCR quantitatif ont confirmé que le CLA inhibait l’induction de RAS1. De plus, le CLA a non seulement causé une baisse des niveaux cellulaires de Ras1p, mais a aussi entraîné sa délocalisation de la membrane plasmique. En affectant les niveaux et la localisation cellulaire de Ras1p, le CLA nuit à l’activation de la voie de signalisation Ras1p-dépendante, inhibant ainsi la morphogenèse. Il est possible que le CLA altère la structure de la membrane plasmique et affecte indirectement la localisation membranaire de Ras1p. Ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence le mode d’action du CLA. Le potentiel thérapeutique du CLA pourrait maintenant être évalué dans un contexte d’infection, permettant ainsi de vérifier qu’une telle approche constitue véritablement une stratégie pour le traitement des candidoses. / The yeast Candida albicans is an inhabitant of the oral cavity, the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts of humans. Generally encountered as a commensal, it is also an opportunistic pathogen that causes a spectrum of infections, ranging from superficial mycoses (thrush, vulvovaginitis) to severe and life-threatening systemic infections. A striking feature of C. albicans is its ability to grow in different morphological forms, including budding yeasts, pseudohyphae, and hyphae. Environmental cues that mimic host conditions (elevated temperature, neutral or alkaline pH, and serum) induce the yeast-to-hypha transition. Morphogenesis is considered to be an attribute of pathogenesis, as mutants locked as yeasts or filamentous forms are avirulent. Given that the yeast-to-hypha transition is a virulence factor, it may also constitute a target for the development of antifungal drugs. Indeed, evidence has shown that impairing morphogenesis is a means to treat systemic candidiasis. Concurrently, a number of molecules have been reported to modulate morphogenesis in C. albicans. For instance, several fatty acids, including conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), inhibited the yeast-to-hypha transition. By interfering with an important attribute of C. albicans pathogenesis, CLA may harbor antifungal properties. However, before assessing its therapeutic potential in a clinical context, it is mandatory to address CLA’s mode of action. The present study aims to further characterize the hypha-inhibiting properties of fatty acids and CLA and to elucidate the mechanism by which these molecules inhibit the yeast-to-hypha transition in C. albicans. Gene expression analyses were performed to gain insight into the transcriptional response of cells to CLA on a genome-wide scale and to probe the fatty acid’s mode of action. CLA downregulated the expression of hypha-specific genes and blocked the induction of genes encoding regulators of hyphal growth, including that of RAS1, which encodes the small GTPase Ras1p. A membrane-associated signaling protein, Ras1p plays a major role in morphogenesis. Quantitative PCR analyses showed that CLA prevented the increase in RAS1 mRNA levels which occurred at the onset of the yeast-to-hypha transition. Unexpectedly, CLA reduced the steady-state levels of Ras1p. Additionally, CLA caused the delocalization of GFP-Ras1p from the plasma membrane. These findings indicate that CLA treatment results in suboptimal Ras1p cellular concentrations and localization, which impedes Ras1p signaling and inhibits the yeast-to-hypha transition. CLA may indirectly affect Ras1p localization by altering the structure of the plasma membrane. These studies have provided the mechanism underlying CLA’s hypha-inhibiting properties and may serve as the rationale to examine CLA’s therapeutic potential in the context of a Candida infection. There is a general lack of clinical evidence demonstrating that impairing morphogenesis is a sound approach to treat candidiasis. To remedy this situation, the therapeutic potential of molecules that modulate morphogenesis, such as CLA, should be clinically assessed.

Einleitung: Futterrationen für Hochleistungsmilchkühe basieren häufig auf Maissilage und liefern somit nur wenig frisches Gras, was eine niedrige Zufuhr an n-3-Fettsäuren, v.a. an α-Linolensäure (ALA), bewirkt. Dies führt einerseits zu einem reduzierten Status an ALA und konjugierter Linolsäure (CLA) und andererseits zu einem hohen n-6/n-3-Verhältnis bei laktierenden Kühen. Ziel der Untersuchungen: Das Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es, die Einflüsse einer Supplementierung von essentiellen Fettsäuren (EFA, v.a. ALA) zusammen mit CLA auf den Fett- säurestatus, die Leistung, auf das antioxidative und inflammatorische System bei Milchkühen, die mit einer Mais-basierten Ration gefüttert wurden, in etablierter Laktation zu untersuchen und ver- schiede Stoffwechselwege, einschließlich der somatotropen Achse, näher zu beleuchten. Tiere, Material und Methoden: Es wurden 4 Kühe (3. Laktation, 126 ± 4 Tage in Milch) in einem 4 × 4 Latin Square untersucht. Die Kühe erhielten täglich abomasale Infusionen an Kokosöl (CTRL, 38,3 g/d; v.a. gesättigte Fettsäuren), Lein- und Distelöl (EFA, 39,1 und 1,6 g/d), Lutalin® (cis-9,trans-11 und trans-10,cis-12 CLA, jeweils 4,6 g/d) oder EFA+CLA für jeweils 6 Wochen. Die initiale Dosis wurde jeweils nach 2 Wochen verdoppelt, was in 3 Dosierungen resultierte (Dosis 1, 2 und 3). Es schloss sich eine 3-wöchige Washout-Periode an. Den Kühen wurde eine Mais-basierte Ration mit einem hohen n-6/n-3-V erhältnis (11,3:1) gefüttert. Die Trockensubstanzaufnahme und die Milchleistung wurden täglich und die Milchzusammensetzung wöchentlich gemessen. Die Fettsäuremuster im Milchfett und im Blutplasma, Plasmakonzentra- tionen von Metaboliten und Hormonen sowie von Parametern des antioxidativen Systems und der Immunantwort (nur in Woche 0 und 6) wurden jeweils in Behandlungswoche 0, 2, 4 und 6 analysiert. Lebergewebe wurde zu Beginn der Studie und jeweils nach 6 Wochen Behandlung entnommen und der Energiestoffwechsel sowie Parameter des antioxidativen Systems und der Immunantwort wurden auf Ebene der Transkription untersucht. Die statistische Auswertung wurde mittels ANOVA und der MIXED Prozedur (repeated measurements) in SAS durchgeführt, wobei Behandlung, Dosis und deren Interaktion als fixe Effekte und die Laktationswoche als Kovariable dienten. Ergebnisse: Die jeweils infundierten Fettsäuren stiegen sowohl im Plasma als auch in der Milch dosisabhängig an. Das n-6/n-3-Verhältnis des Milchfetts lag in der CTRL- und in der CLA- Gruppe höher als in den beiden EFA-Gruppen. Die Energie-korrigierte Milch und das Milchfett nahmen dosisabhängig in den beiden CLA-Gruppen ab. Es gab einen Trend für eine höhere Energiebilanz in der CLA-Gruppe. Der Milchproteingehalt war in den beiden CLA-Gruppen niedriger als in der CTRL-Gruppe und die Milchharnstoffkonzentration sank in beiden CLA- Gruppen dosisabhängig ab. Die Citratkonzentration in der Milch stieg dosisabhängig in der CLA- Gruppe an. Die Aktivität der Glutathionperoxidase im Blutplasma war in der CTRL-Gruppe ge- ringer als in der EFA-Gruppe und die Plasmakonzentration von β-Carotin stieg in beiden EFA- Gruppen mit der Dosis an. Die Plasmakonzentration des Gesamtcholesterols stieg dosisabhängig in allen Gruppen, außer der CLA-Gruppe, an. Die Plasmakonzentration des High-density- lipoprotein-Cholesterols stieg in der CTRL-Gruppe an und lag höher als in der EFA- und der CLA-Gruppe, während die Konzentrationen des Low-density-lipoprotein-Cholesterols dosisab- hängig in der EFA- und der EFA+CLA-Gruppe anstiegen und höher als in der CLA-Gruppe waren. Die hepatische Genexpression der 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA Synthase 1 wurde in allen Gruppen hochreguliert und lag in der EFA+CLA-Gruppe am höchsten. Die Genexpression des sterol regulatory element-binding factor 1 zeigte einen Trend für die niedrigsten Werte in den beiden EFA-Gruppen. Die Expression des leberspezifischen growth hormone receptor 1A (GHR1A) tendierte zu einer Erhöhung in der EFA+CLA-Gruppe im Vergleich zur CTRL-Gruppe. Die insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I)-Plasmakonzentration stieg in der CLA-Gruppe an und der Plasmaspiegel des insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2 (IGFBP-2) lag in der EFA+CLA- Gruppe niedriger als in der CTRL-Gruppe. Die Albumin- und Harnstoffkonzentrationen im Plasma waren in der CLA-Gruppe niedriger als in der CTRL-Gruppe. Schlussfolgerungen: Die Milchfettdepression und das erhöhte Milch-Citrat weisen auf eine redu- zierte de-novo-Fettsäuresynthese und einen verbesserten oxidativen Status in der Milch durch CLA-Supplementierung hin. Weder CLA- noch EFA-Gaben zeigten eindeutige Wirkungen auf den Entzündungsstatus bei den Milchkühen. Die Supplementierung von EFA und CLA hatte Ein- fluss auf den Cholesterol- und den Fettstoffwechsel sowie deren Regulierung. Der erhöhte IGF- I-Plasma-Spiegel in der CLA-Gruppe sowie die niedrigere IGFBP-2-Plasmakonzentration und die erhöhte Genexpression des GHR1A in der Leber der EFA+CLA-Gruppe deuten auf stimulierende Effekte auf die somatotrope Achse hin. Weiterhin scheinen CLA-Gaben auch den Proteinstoffwechsel von Milchkühen zu beeinflussen.

This study investigated the effects of abomasal infusion of essential fatty acids, especially alpha-linolenic acid, and conjugated linoleic acid on their distribution in milk fat and blood plasma and on the plasma inflammatory response in dairy cows from late to early lactation. The most important essential fatty acids for ruminants are alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. They are abundant in pasture which is nowadays reduced in the ration of dairy cows due to the replacement of fresh feeds by preserved diets. Conjugated linoleic acid is formed as a by-product during ruminal biohydrogenation of essential fatty acids and has been associated with positive effects on the energy metabolism and immune system. Forty rumen-cannulated Holstein Friesian cows were assigned to four treatment groups in their late second lactation. Prior to supplementation, cows were fed a total mixed rations with a low-fat content. In late gestation cows were abomasally treated with coconut oil, linseed and safflower oil, conjugated linoleic acid, or both. Performance data, milk composition and fatty acid pattern in milk and plasma as well as inflammatory response parameters in plasma were measured regularly. Furthermore, liver tissue was tested for the abundance of genes related to the inflammatory response.:TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION 2. LITERATURE OVERVIEW 2.1 Essential Fatty Acids and Conjugated Linoleic Acid 2.1.1 Essential Fatty Acids (EFA) 2.1.2 Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) 2.1.3 EFA in Dairy Cow Nutrition 2.2 Fatty Acid Distribution in Blood, Erythrocyte Membranes, and Milk Fat 2.2.1 Plasma Lipids 2.2.2 EFA and CLA in Plasma Lipids 2.2.3 EFA and CLA in Erythrocyte Membranes 2.2.4 EFA and CLA in Milk Fat 2.3 Effects of EFA and CLA on Inflammatory Processes during the Transition Period 2.3.1 Metabolic and Immunological Challenges during the Transition Period 2.3.2 Effects of EFA on the Metabolism, Inflammatory- and Immune Response 2.3.3 Effects of CLA on the Metabolism, Inflammatory- and Immune Response 2.4 Scope of the Thesis 3. PUBLICATION 4. GENERAL DISCUSSION 4.1 Abomasal Infusion 4.2 Animal Performance 4.3 Distribution of EFA and CLA in Blood and Milk Fat 4.4 Effects of EFA and CLA on Plasma and Hepatic Acute Phase and Inflammatory Response 4.5 Conclusion and Practical Considerations 4.5.1 Summary of EFA effects 4.5.2 Summary of CLA effects 4.5.3 Summary of synergistic effects of EFA and CLA 4.5.4 Summary of Observations apart from Treatments and Practical Considerations 5. SUMMARY 6. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 7. REFERENCES APPENDIX