Tematem niniejszej pracy są wybrane osobliwości w zakresie konstruowania zdań złożonych jako cecha składniowo-stylistyczna rozprawek uczniowskich. Materiał badawczy stanowiło 45 wypracowań maturalnych uczniów szkół polskich na Wileńszczyźnie. Wykorzystana została metoda analizy tekstu pisanego. Dotychczasowe badania nad polszczyzną uczniów szkół polskich na Wileńszczyźnie nie dotyczyły zakresu syntaksy. Niniejsza praca prezentuje wyniki wstępnych badań nad takimi składniowymi wykładnikami stylu, jak międzyzdaniowe wskaźniki zespolenia w konstrukcjach wielopredykatowych oraz nad konstrukcjami przesadnie rozbudowanymi, zwanymi potokami składniowymi. Tak więc głównym celem było zbadanie połączeń międzyzdaniowych (współrzędnych i podrzędnych, pomijając bezspójnikowe), które miały pokazać, za pomocą jakich wskaźników zespolenia badana grupa maturzystów łączy wypowiedzenia w tekstach pisanych, które wskaźniki nawiązania cieszą się największą popularnością u uczniów, które zaś nie są przez nich używane. Zakładałam, że w wypracowaniach jako tekstach pisanych o większym stopniu intelektualizacji powinno się znaleźć dużo wykładników nawiązania, oczekiwałam również dużej liczby spójników o zabarwieniu książkowym. Niezmiernie ważnym elementem analizy spójników parataktycznych oraz hipotaktycznych było zaakcentowanie ich wartości stylistycznej. Kolejnym zadaniem było zasygnalizowanie występowania w wybranym materiale ważnego problemu, a mianowicie nieporadności stylistyczno-składniowych w... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Šis magistro darbas nagrinėja sintaksiniai-stilistinius klausimus. Norėta nustatyti, kokių jungtukų pagalba lenkų mokyklų Lietuvoje abiturientai jungia sudėtinius sakinius, kuriuos jungtukus jie vartoja dažniausiai, o kurie visai neatsispindi (trūksta) jų rašytinėje kalboje. Didelis dėmesys buvo kreipiamas į jungtukų stilistinius bruožus (t.y. kurie yra vartojami rašytinėje kalboje, kurie šnekamojoje, galiausiai kurie pasižymi neutralumu). Darbas susideda iš įžangos, 4 skyrių ir pabaigos. Pirmajame skyriuje yra pateikti teoriniai sintaksiniai-stilistiniai klausimai. Antras skyrius ir trečias yra sukomponuoti analogiškai: antras vaizduoja sudedamųjų jungtukų analizę, trečias prijungiamųjų jungtukų, o taip pat parodomųjų įvardžių. Analizė paremta yra 45 mokinių rašiniais. Paskutinis darbo skyrius tik atkreipia dėmesį į įvairias klaidas mokinių sudėtiniuse sakiniuse, jame nėra visapusiškos analizės. Šio skyriaus tikslas buvo tik parodyti pastebėtas sudedamųjų sakinių problemas, kurias verta nagrinėti (tarp jų ir stilistinio pobūdžio klaidos). Pradžioje buvo iškelta hipotezė, kad mokinių rašiniuose turi būti daug jungtukų, o ypač rašytiniai kalbai būdingų, tačiau ji ne visai pasitvirtino. Lenkų mokyklų Lietuvoje abiturientai sudedamuosiuose sakiniuose daugiau vartojo neutralių sudedamųjų jungtukų. Prijungiamuosiuse sakiniuose proporcijos tarp neutralių jungtukų ir rašytinei kalbai būdingų buvo labai panašios. / The present master’s thesis examines syntactic-stylistic issues. The main goal of the thesis was to find out with the help of what conjunctions the graduates of Polish schools in Lithuania most often combine composite sentences, and which conjunctions are used by them the most often; also what conjunctions are missing in their written language. Great attention has been paid to stylistic features of conjunctions (i.e. which are used in the written language, spoken language, and finally, which of them are distinguished for neutrality). The thesis consists of an introduction, 4 chapters and the end. The first chapter is devoted to the theoretical syntactic/stylistic issues. The second and the third chapters are composed analogically: the second one contains an analysis of composite conjunctions, and the third one - of subordinate conjunctions and demonstrative pronouns. The analysis was based on the compositions of 45 pupils. The final chapter of the thesis only draws attention to different mistakes made by pupils in composite sentences, and does not provide a comprehensive analysis. The goal of this chapter was only to show the problems of composite sentences which have been noticed and worthy of examination (including the stylistic type of mistakes). At the beginning of the thesis a hypothesis was raised that there should be a lot of conjunctions characteristic of the written language in the compositions of pupils; it proved to be true only in part. The graduates of Polish... [to full text]

This thesis examines the use of conjunctions in texts, and in particular their function as a marker of text type. Children's acquisition of this aspect of conjunction usage is the main focus. An examination of the characteristics of various text types and the nature of coordinate and subordinate conjunctions in English serves as a framework within which the experimental evidence from adults and children (aged three to five) is considered. Three types of texts--conversation, narratives, and game explanations--were collected. It was found that both the types of conjunctions used and the frequency of conjunctions as a class vary according to text type; conjunctions are much more frequent in narratives and explanations than in conversation. It is shown here that pragmatic or cognitive factors cannot account for these findings; they can only be explained as a function of text type. The data from the children provide evidence that their conjunction usage is also constrained by text type, although their patterns of use are not exactly the same as the adults'. The results indicate that by age five children have a definite conception of text as a linguistic entity.

Upon entering tertiary education students have to undergo development with regard to the way in which information is gathered, processed and produced because the academic context (secondary environment) is different to the primary context in so many ways. Students have to acquire the identity or discourse of the secondary environment, in other words they must learn how to behave, interact, believe, speak, read and write in an academic way (Gee, 1996:viii). When students have acquired the identity of the secondary environment they are well on their way to a successful academic career. The choice has been made to focus on one component of identity, namely reading, and specifically academic reading. The latter concept is defined as the process to accept, reject and synthesize incoming information from various sources – the guiding principle in this process is the aim of theorizing. It was found that comprehension of the semantics and function of conjunction markers played an important role in the academic reading process. And that the cloze test is a good method to teach comprehension of conjunction markers. The aim of the current study is to establish whether the use of cloze tests, focused on conjunction markers, will improve academic reading comprehension, within the framework of academic literacy. The empirical research was conducted amongst first year students at the North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus. Participants were selected using the following criteria: they had AGLA111 and they were first year students during 2008-2010. As basis for this research a pretest-posttest control group experimental design was used. The nature of this research is quantitative and a null-hypothesis (H0) was formulated: cloze tests as a teaching method will not improve reading comprehension. Six sets of data were used for this investigation: the January 2008 results, the June 2008 results, the January 2009 results, the June 2009 results, the January 2010 results and the June 2010 results. These sets of data were compared using independent t-tests to establish whether the means were statistically significant. The sets of data were compared looking at - the TAG as a whole and - only the questions that involved conjunction markers. The test in January is written before students commence with their studies and the test in June is written after they have received intervention by way of the academic literacy module. The only intervention in 2008 was the standard academic literacy module – this group serves as the control group. During 2009, besides the standard intervention, students underwent five weeks of cloze tests with conjunction markers as focus – this was the pilot study. The experimental group which had standard intervention as well as nine weeks of cloze tests, was the group of 2010. The results of the experiment show that the effect size was big with regard to the results of the TAG as a whole and medium with regards to the questions that involve conjunction markers. The results were statistically significant in both cases and the mean of the post tests were higher in each event. The finding is that cloze test training focussed on conjunction markers is a good method for improving academic reading comprehension, but more research is still necessary. / MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Devido a uma abordagem superficial feita na maior parte das gramáticas normativas de língua portuguesa no Brasil, a análise de conectivos, infelizmente, fica restrita muitas vezes a uma listagem de diversas conjunções / locuções conjuntivas e, portanto, minimiza-se um rico estudo idiomático, tão necessário à compreensão dos elementos que compõem os discursos, pois há neles uma quantidade considerável de funções importantes a serem avaliadas. É visível que, além das dificuldades inerentes à compreensão dos aspectos idiomáticos, o leitor não possui, em muitas oportunidades, conhecimento de mundo suficiente para compreendê-los. O que problematiza consideravelmente também a percepção de um conteúdo textual é o não reconhecimento dos valores possíveis dos conectivos. Parece que esses valores são imutáveis e que bastaria memorizar certas conjunções para sabê-los. Entretanto, o reconhecimento gramatical desse componente mostra-se importante na constituição e entendimento dos enunciados discursivos bem como nas funções de ordem morfológica e sintática. O que se pretenderá alcançar neste trabalho é justamente ampliar as dimensões de emprego e valores possíveis desses conectores, e propiciar assim uma visão macro desse tão importante recurso gramatical.Dessa forma, procurar-se-á ampliar o estudo dos conectivos, não só com os valores possíveis vinculados ao contexto em que estão inseridos, como também com os mecanismos textuais propiciados por eles, ou seja, um estudo funcional das conjunções/locuções conjuntivas / Due to a superficial approach done in most of the prescriptive grammars of Portuguese language in Brazil, the analysis of connectives, unfortunately, is very often limited to a listing of several conjunctions / subjunctive phrases and, so, rich idiomatic, so necessary study is minimized to the understanding of the elements that compose the speeches, since there is in them a considerable quantity of important functions to be valued. It is visible that, besides the difficulties inherent in the understanding of the idiomatic aspects, the reader it has not, in many opportunities, knowledge of sufficient world to understand them. What do it worst considerably also the perception of a textual content is it not recognition of the possible values of the connectives. It seems that these values are inalterable and that it would be enough to memorize certain conjunctions to know them. Meantime, the grammatical recognition of this component appears important in the constitution and understanding of expressed discursive as well as in the functions of morphological and syntactic order. What to intend to reach in this work is just to enlarge the dimensions of use and possible values of these connectors, and to favor so a vision macro of this so important grammatical resource.This way, is tried to enlarge the study of the connectives, not only with the possible values linked to the context in which they are inserted, but also with the textual mechanisms favored by them, in other words, a functional study of the subjunctive conjunctions / phrases

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Devido a uma abordagem superficial feita na maior parte das gramáticas normativas de língua portuguesa no Brasil, a análise de conectivos, infelizmente, fica restrita muitas vezes a uma listagem de diversas conjunções / locuções conjuntivas e, portanto, minimiza-se um rico estudo idiomático, tão necessário à compreensão dos elementos que compõem os discursos, pois há neles uma quantidade considerável de funções importantes a serem avaliadas. É visível que, além das dificuldades inerentes à compreensão dos aspectos idiomáticos, o leitor não possui, em muitas oportunidades, conhecimento de mundo suficiente para compreendê-los. O que problematiza consideravelmente também a percepção de um conteúdo textual é o não reconhecimento dos valores possíveis dos conectivos. Parece que esses valores são imutáveis e que bastaria memorizar certas conjunções para sabê-los. Entretanto, o reconhecimento gramatical desse componente mostra-se importante na constituição e entendimento dos enunciados discursivos bem como nas funções de ordem morfológica e sintática. O que se pretenderá alcançar neste trabalho é justamente ampliar as dimensões de emprego e valores possíveis desses conectores, e propiciar assim uma visão macro desse tão importante recurso gramatical.Dessa forma, procurar-se-á ampliar o estudo dos conectivos, não só com os valores possíveis vinculados ao contexto em que estão inseridos, como também com os mecanismos textuais propiciados por eles, ou seja, um estudo funcional das conjunções/locuções conjuntivas / Due to a superficial approach done in most of the prescriptive grammars of Portuguese language in Brazil, the analysis of connectives, unfortunately, is very often limited to a listing of several conjunctions / subjunctive phrases and, so, rich idiomatic, so necessary study is minimized to the understanding of the elements that compose the speeches, since there is in them a considerable quantity of important functions to be valued. It is visible that, besides the difficulties inherent in the understanding of the idiomatic aspects, the reader it has not, in many opportunities, knowledge of sufficient world to understand them. What do it worst considerably also the perception of a textual content is it not recognition of the possible values of the connectives. It seems that these values are inalterable and that it would be enough to memorize certain conjunctions to know them. Meantime, the grammatical recognition of this component appears important in the constitution and understanding of expressed discursive as well as in the functions of morphological and syntactic order. What to intend to reach in this work is just to enlarge the dimensions of use and possible values of these connectors, and to favor so a vision macro of this so important grammatical resource.This way, is tried to enlarge the study of the connectives, not only with the possible values linked to the context in which they are inserted, but also with the textual mechanisms favored by them, in other words, a functional study of the subjunctive conjunctions / phrases

Previous research has suggested that attraction errors are not due to the proximity of the local noun and verb, as a more distant local noun can result in more errors than a nearer one (e.g., *The helicopter for the flights over the canyon are vs. *The helicopter for the flight over the canyons are; Franck, Vigliocco, & Nicol, 2002). However, the verb tends to agree in number with the nearer noun of a disjoined subject, suggesting that linear order can indeed play a role in agreement computation (e.g., The horse or the clocks are vs. The horses or the clock is; Haskell & MacDonald, 2005). In the present study, two experiments using a two-alternative forced-choice production paradigm and one experiment using eyetracking during reading directly compared agreement computation in the classic attraction configuration and when the subject is a coordinate phrase. The 2AFC experiments replicated both the lack of a linear distance effect in classic attraction and the presence of a linear order effect in disjunction agreement, which was also extended to conjunction agreement; when the second conjunct was singular, subjects frequently selected a singular verb. This order effect was also modulated by the presence or absence of additional material between the subject and verb. In the eyetracking experiment, a singular second conjunct both facilitated processing of a singular verb and inhibited processing of a plural verb. These results suggest that variable agreement with coordinate subjects is not a form of agreement attraction and that distinct theoretical treatments are required for two distinct phenomena.

TARTAKOVSKAYA, A. Conjunctions in spoken and written Czech Faculty of arts Charles University in Prague, 2011 Supervisor: Václav Cvrček, Ph.D. Number of pages: 66 + 6 attachments Key words: Conjunctions, written Czech language, spoken Czech language, word link, Czech National Corpus, secondary linking conjunctions, co-coordinating linking conjunctions Conjunctions in the Czech language are still relatively small chapter described in manuals and grammar books. The aim is to investigate connecting words in spoken and written language, their use in text and links with other words, compare the use of the coupling term in written and spoken Czech language. Theoretical basis for master's thesis is based on several works which are devoted to this issue, either in whole or in dealing with some of its parts. But the major outline of work is driven by the Czech National Corpus (hereafter CNC), namely the corpora SYN2005 and ORAL2008. First chapter deals with CNC and coupling expressions in general, second deals with secondary linking conjunctions, their use in text types and surrounding words. The content of the third chapter incorporates the connecting conjunctions.

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Education

[pt] Este trabalho trata da motivação conceptual que levou os itens mas, porém, contudo, todavia, entretanto e no entanto, considerados pela maioria das gramáticas do português como conjunções adversativas, a passarem por um processo de gramaticalização. Apesar de ser discutível a classificação dos referidos itens como conjunções adversativas - já que, com exceção de mas, os demais não têm um comportamento sintático típico de conjunções -, considera-se o fato de que todos, de alguma forma, se tornaram mais gramaticais desde suas origens medievais até hoje. O processo de gramaticalização é entendido, então, como aquele em que tanto itens lexicais e construções formam-se em certos contextos lingüísticos para exercer funções gramaticais quanto itens gramaticais desenvolvem novas funções gramaticais (HOPPER & TRAUGOTT, 2003). O enfoque do trabalho está na busca dos elementos conceptuais que possam ter motivado o processo. Trabalhos como o de Barreto (1999) afirmam que a motivação da gramaticalização dos itens em pauta foi metonímica, por influência da presença de elementos de sentido negativo em posição adjacente à deles, no português medieval. A proposta deste trabalho é investigar por que os itens em estudo encontravam-se maciçamente, ao que parece, em ambientes que apresentavam partículas de sentido negativo. A partir da leitura de trabalhos como o de Vogt & Ducrot (1980) e o de Sweetser (1991), entende- se que mas encontrava-se nesses ambientes em função de uma motivação metafórica e que as relações contrajuntivas para cujo estabelecimento o item contribuía ocorriam proeminentemente nos domínios epistêmico e conversacional da linguagem. A mesma proposta de análise é estendida aos demais itens, que, segundo se verifica em amostras do português medieval, por funcionarem em prol da coesão do texto, eram propícios a serem empregados em contextos lingüísticos nos quais se delimitavam dois grupos de informação postos em relação. Essa relação podia ser contrajuntiva e, se não se encontrava assinalada gramaticalmente, era, ainda assim, depreensível através de uma análise das relações textuais que se davam no plano do significado lingüístico, em especial nos níveis epistêmico ou conversacional. Portanto, elementos negativos eram cabíveis nos referidos contextos e, com eles, também elementos responsáveis pela coesão textual anafórica. / [en] In this work I deal with the conceptual motivation of the grammaticalization of the items mas, porém, todavia, entretanto e no entanto, which are classified as adversative conjunctions by the majority of the Portuguese Grammars. Though such classification is very discussable - for all of these items but mas present nontypically- conjunctional syntactical behavior - we consider the fact that all of the items cited above have become more grammatical in some manner since their medieval origins until the present days. Hence, the grammaticalization process is understood as that one in which the lexical items and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions or how grammatical items develop new grammatical functions (HOPPER & TRAUGOTT, 2003). This work focuses the quest for the conceptual elements which could have motivated this process. Works such as Barreto´s (1999) state that the motivation for the grammaticalization of the items being studied in this text was a metonymic one, carried out by the influence of semantically negative elements which appeared next to them in the Medieval Portuguese. The objective of my work is to investigate why these items were massively found, as it seems, in contexts with negative-sense particles. From the reading of works such as Vogt´s & Ducrot´s (1980) and Sweetser´s (1991), I understand that mas was found in such contexts due to a metaphoric motivation and that the adversative relation for whose establishment it contributed occurred mainly within the epistemic domain of language. This very analysis is extended to the other items, which, according to what can be verified through the analysis of samples of the Medieval Portuguese, had the tendency of being used in contexts in which two groups of linguistic information, put into an adversative relation, were delimited, contributing for the text cohesion. This adversative relation, if not grammatically marked, was, even though, inferrible through the analysis of the textual relations which took place in the linguistic meaning plain, especially at the epistemic level. Thus, negative elements were possible in these contexts and with them, also, the elements responsible for the textual cohesion.

Esta dissertação tem como objetivo investigar a presença das conjunções em um livro didático de língua italiana para estrangeiros. O material analisado consiste em textos argumentativos, com suas respectivas atividades, presentes nos três volumes da coleção Arrivederci!. Quanto ao aspecto teórico, procuramos apresentar definições de sujeito, língua, texto (KOCH, 2011a, MARCUSCHI, 2008) e argumentação, assim como modelos de competência comunicativa (BACHMAN, 2003; CELCE-MURCIA,2007). Ainda como fundamentação teórica, apresentamos um panorama comparativo das orações coordenadas e subordinadas da língua portuguesa e da língua italiana, bem como taxonomia das conjunções em ambas as línguas. Do ponto de vista metodológico, selecionamos os textos de caráter argumentativo presentes nos livros didáticos selecionados para o estudo, com base na presença de operadores modais (KOCH, 2011b) e elaboramos uma tabela para cada um dos três volumes da coleção, contendo: o número da unidade didática, a seção relativa a cada texto argumentativo, a modalidade (oral ou escrita), a quantidade, a listagem das conjunções e as atividades relacionadas a cada texto argumentativo. Quanto aos resultados obtidos, observamos que há pouca relação entre os textos argumentativos e atividades de produção escrita, potencialmente importantes para o desenvolvimento da competência linguística (SCHNEUWLY&DOLZ, 2004). Verificamos ainda, que os textos argumentativos estão desvinculados da sistematização das conjunções e de atividades explicitamente voltadas para o seu uso. O próprio Quadro Europeu Comum de Referência para as Línguas, base para o planejamento e para a elaboração de materiais didáticos, menciona o ensino da habilidade de argumentar apenas a partir do nível B2. Como último resultado deste estudo, mencionamos o descompasso entre a opinião dos professores sobre a necessidade de trabalhar sistematicamente com as conjunções desde os níveis iniciais e o baixo percentual de atividades e explicitações sobre as conjunções nos livros didáticos analisados. / The main goal of this dissertation is to investigate the presence of conjunctions in a textbook of Italian as a foreign language. The analyzed material are argumentative texts with their activities on the three volumes of the collection book Arrivederci!. As for the theoretical aspects, we try to present definitions of subject, language, text (KOCH, 2011a; MARCUSCHI, 2008) and argumentation, as well as the models of communicative competence (KOCH, 2011b; BACHMAN, 2003; CELCE-MURCIA, 2007). We present also for the theoretical aspects a comparative panorama of the coordinated and subordinated clauses in Portuguese and Italian and the conjunctions taxonomy in both languages. At the methodological point of view, we selected the texts in the textbooks that have had an argumentative character, it based on the presence of modals operators (KOCH, 2011b) and we made a table for each one of the volume in the collection. It had: the number of the unit, the section related of the argumentative text, the modality (oral or written), the quantity, a list of conjunctions and the activities related for each argumentative text. As for the results, we observed there is a little relation between the argumentative texts and those written activities, potentially important for the development of language skills (SCHNEUWLY & DOLZ, 2004). We also note, that the argumentative texts are unlink with the conjunctions systematization and activities focused for their use. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, and Assessment (CEFR) cited the teaching of the argumentation ability on only from level B2. As the last result of this study, we mentioned the gap between the views of teachers on the need to work the conjunctions systematically from the beginners levels and the low percentage of activities and explanations about the conjunctions in the textbooks analyzed.