Unwanted and unintended pregnancies pose major reproductive health challenges to women throughout the world. Despite the availability of modern contraceptives, many women and men fail to use contraceptives effectively. This research focussed on reasons for not using contraceptives effectively in the Northern Tshwane area of the Gauteng Province of the Republic of South Africa (RSA). Structured interviews were conducted with 83 women and 71 men about their contraceptive practices. Age, religion, educational level and residential areas influenced clients' contraceptive practices. These results were categorised for adult males and females as well as for adolescent males and females. Adolescents encountered problems in accessing contraceptive services. Adult females knew most about traditional contraceptives, although men knew about some of these methods, and adolescents used some of them. All respondents could gain additional knowledge about modern contraceptives. The respondents' knowledge about · emergency contraceptives was extremely limited. Although most respondents knew about legalised choice on.termination of pregnancy (CTOP) services in the RSA, they did not know when nor how to access these services. Nurses working in contraceptive health services, revealed during a focus group discussion that a lack of resources (including shortages of malcondoms, contraceptive injections and oral contraceptives) hampered the quality of services that could be rendered. Of particular concern was the nonavailability of Norplant implants and female condoms. Nurses expressed a need for pecific national policy guidelines about supplying contraception to adolescents. Although most nurses knew about emergency contraceptives, they did not promote its use because they assumed that clients would misuse emergency contraceptives.instead of using contraceptives regularly. The nurses indicated that very few facilities offered CTOP services. The nurses regarded women who obtained repeated CTOPs to be misusing these services and suggested that limitations should be placed on the number-of times any woman could obtain such services. The negative attitudes of community members and of colleagues towards persons working in CTOP services caused hardships for them. Recommendations address ways in which contraceptive services could be improved. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)

The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the contributory factors to the high teenage pregnancy rate within a district hospital in the Ehlanzeni district of the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Quantitative, non-experimental, descriptive and exploratory research was conducted to explore the contributory factors to the high teenage pregnancy rate. Data collection was done using a self-designed structured interview schedule. The findings of the study supported the assumptions that there are factors related to biography, individual perceptions, knowledge and awareness of; and practices, perceptions regarding the use of contraception. Perceived seriousness and barriers to the use of safeguards that could have prevented pregnancy contribute to the high teenage pregnancy rate thus emphasise the need to develop strategies to prevent teenage pregnancies / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

This study assessed the intentions with regard to fertility and use of contraception by women living with HIV/AIDS. The study was a quantitative cross-sectional study on a sample of 362 HIV-positive women in the ART follow-up unit in Adama Hospital Medical College. Large numbers of HIV-positive women with no income, housewives, illiterates and women in the age group of 28-32 years declared their intention to fall pregnant. The most prevalent family planning method among the HIV-positive women before their HIV diagnosis was injectables. After wards the most popular method of contraception was the condom. The results suggest that the counselling about condom use that is offered to HIV positive women yields results, as more women adopt this method of contraception. This is important in view of prevention of HIV infections and re-infections. / Health Studies / M. A. (Public Health)

Endometrial cancer is the most common gynecologic cancer with 54,870 cases occurring in the United States in 2015 and causing 10,170 deaths, an 18.5% mortality rate (Elit and Reade, 2015). Ovarian cancer, while less common, is much more fatal. In 2015 in the United States, 21,290 cases occurred and resulted in 14,180 deaths, a 66.6% mortality rate. This mortality rate makes ovarian cancer the fifth most deadly cancer for women in the United States, which is largely explained by ineffective screening strategies and limited treatment possibilities (Cramer, 2012). Thus, developing effective prevention strategies is especially important to saving the lives of women who will develop ovarian or endometrial cancer. Women taking combined oral contraceptives (COCs), a type of hormonal birth control, have shown a significant reduced risk of developing ovarian and endometrial cancer. However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not currently recommend taking COCs for the prevention gynecologic cancer (CDC, 2014a). Since the efficacy of COCs for reducing risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer is well established, guidelines need to be determined for populations of women that should take hormonal birth control to minimize cancer risk. This paper highlights the current understanding of ovarian and endometrial cancer, populations of women at highest risk for developing either of these two cancers, and then proposes a case-control study to help determine which populations of women should take hormonal birth control to reduce their gynecologic cancer risk.

The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the contributory factors to the high teenage pregnancy rate within a district hospital in the Ehlanzeni district of the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Quantitative, non-experimental, descriptive and exploratory research was conducted to explore the contributory factors to the high teenage pregnancy rate. Data collection was done using a self-designed structured interview schedule. The findings of the study supported the assumptions that there are factors related to biography, individual perceptions, knowledge and awareness of; and practices, perceptions regarding the use of contraception. Perceived seriousness and barriers to the use of safeguards that could have prevented pregnancy contribute to the high teenage pregnancy rate thus emphasise the need to develop strategies to prevent teenage pregnancies / Health Studies / M. A. (Health Studies)

RESUMO STOCCO, B. Avaliação do efeito de contraceptivos hormonais sobre a hemostasia. 2011. 92f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2011. Introdução: Mais de 100 milhões de mulheres no mundo fazem uso de métodos contraceptivos hormonais. Apesar de seu desejado efeito na contracepção, sua metabolização ocorre no fígado estimulando a síntese de proteínas plasmáticas, dentre elas, as que controlam os sistemas de coagulação e fibrinólise, conferindo um estado de hipercoagulabilidade em suas usuárias. A literatura aponta também alterações no metabolismo dos lipídios e carboidratos, além de modular a expressão de moléculas de adesão presentes no endotélio. Para combater os efeitos indesejáveis destes medicamentos, baixas concentrações de estrógenos e diferentes progestágenos foram introduzidos, pois, a estes últimos é conferida a atividade anti estrogênica destas formulações. Estudos independentes sugerem que progesteronas de terceira e quarta geração possuem atividade anti-estrogênica menor em relação as de segunda geração. Objetivos: avaliar a ocorrência de alterações hemostáticas, analisar o perfil lipídico e quantificar moléculas de adesão no soro ou plasma da população feminina brasileira usuária de contraceptivos orais de segunda e quarta gerações. Materiais e Métodos: 70 participantes distribuídas em quatro grupos a saber : grupo I (controle- 20 pacientes); grupo II (DRSP/30EE- 20 pacientes); grupo III (DRSP/20EE- 16 pacientes) e grupo IV (LNG/30EE-14 pacientes). Foram avaliados os seguintes parâmetros: TP, Fator VII, TTPA, Fator XII, Fibrinogênio, Fator 1+2, Proteína C, Proteína S, Antitrombina, D dímeros, PAI 1, VCAM, ICAM, E- selectina, HDL, LDL,VLDL, Colesterol total e Triglicérides. Resultados e discussões: grupo II promoveu diminuição em TP e Prot. S; e aumento em HDL,VLDL,Col. total e TG; grupo III diminuiu TP, TTPA, Prot.S, ICAM e VCAM ; e aumentou Fibrinogênio, D-dímeros, HDL,VLDL,Col. total e TG e grupo IV diminuiu TP, Prot.C e aumentou ICAM e VCAM. Conclusões: Dos medicamentos estudados apontamos que: o grupo II promoveu alterações significativas no perfil lipídico caracterizando um estado pró-trombótico, apesar de apresentar o maior aumento nos valores de HDL e poucas alterações associadas à hipercoagulabilidade; o grupo III promoveu o maior número de alterações hipercoagulantes, alterou também perfil lipídico contribuindo para um estado pró- trombótico, embora tenha apresentado proteção endotelial e o grupo IV foi o medicamento que promoveu melhor proteção endotelial, não alterou perfil lipídico e ocasionou poucas alterações associadas à hipercoagulabilidade / Introduction: More than 100 million women in the world make use of hormonal contraceptives. In spite of its desired effect on contraception, its metabolization occurs at liver, estimulating the synthesis of the plasmatic proteins, among them, the ones that control the coagulation system and fibrinolysis, confering a hypercoagulability state in their users. The literature also points changes in the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates, besides modulate the expression of adhesion molecules present in the endothelium. Trying to combat undesirable effects of these drugs, low concentrations of estrogen and different progestogens were introduced, because, the antiestrogenic activity of these drugs is assigned to the progesterone used. Independent papers suggest that third and fourth generation progesterones have a smaller antiestrogenic activity in relation to the second generation one. Objectives: evaluate the occurrence of hemostatic alterations, analyze the lipid profile and quantify adhesion molecules in serum or plasma on the Brazilian female population who is user of contraceptives from second and fourth generation. Material and Methods: 70 participants were distributed into four groups: group I (control- 20 patients); group II (DRSP/30EE- 20 patients); group III (DRSP/20EE- 16 patients) and group IV (LNG/30EE- 14 patients). From these were assessed the following parameters: PT, Factor VII, APTT, Factor XII, Fibrinogen, Factor 1+2, Protein C, Protein S, Antithrombin, Ddimmers, PAI 1,VCAM, ICAM, E- selectin, HDL, LDL, VLDL, Total Cholesterol and Triglycerides.Results and discussion: group II promoted a decrease in PT and Prot.S; and an increase in HDL,VLDL, Total cholesterol and TG; group III decreased PT, APTT, Prot.S, ICAM and VCAM ; and increased Fribrinogen, D- dimers, HDL,VLDL,Total Cholesterol and TG and group IV decreased PT, Prot.C and increased ICAM and VCAM.Conclusions: among the drugs studied we aim that: the group II promoted significant changes in lipid profile featuring a pro- thrombotic state, in spite of presented the highest increase in the levels of HDL and few alterations associated to hypercoagulability; group III promoted the biggest number of hypercoagulability alterations, this drug also changed the lipid profile contributing to a pro-thrombotic state, although it has presented endothelial protection and the group IV it was the drug that promoted the best endothelial protection, did not change lipid profile and caused few alterations associated with hypercoagulability

Introdução: O crescimento do número de idosos no Brasil tem aumentado o interesse em identificar os determinantes da sua sobrevida e da incidência de doenças crônicas. A menopausa é definida como a cessação permanente da menstruação e está associada à diminuição da secreção de estrógenos por perda da função folicular, marcando o fim da fase reprodutiva na vida feminina. A idade da menopausa tem sido associada em alguns estudos internacionais com a mortalidade e algumas causas de morbidade, mas faltam estudos sobre o tema no Brasil. Esta tese será apresentada por meio de 3 artigos. O primeiro analisou os fatores associados à idade da menopausa natural em mulheres do estudo SABE (Saúde, Bem-estar e Envelhecimento). O tabagismo e a escolaridade estiveram estatisticamente associados com uma menopausa mais cedo nas três coortes analisadas: 2000, 2006 e 2010. Mulheres fumantes atuais tiveram 35% maior risco de ter menopausa precoce (HR=1.35, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.62) e as ex-fumantes 27% maior risco (HR=1.27, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.50), em comparação com as mulheres que nunca fumaram. Em relação à escolaridade, as mulheres com 8 anos ou mais de estudos tiveram 33% menor risco de menopausa precoce (HR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.50, 0.89) comparadas às mulheres sem escolaridade. Estado civil e número de filhos estiveram associados a uma menopausa mais tardia na coorte 2006. No segundo artigo, foi realizada uma análise de sobrevida segundo a idade da menopausa natural das mulheres pertencentes à coorte 2000. Foram identificados 444 óbitos de mulheres até 2016. Mulheres com menopausa precoce tiveram 48% de maior risco de mortalidade geral (HR=1.48, 95% IC: 1.03, 2.14) comparadas às mulheres com idade de menopausa entre os 50 e 54 anos (referência). Em relação à mortalidade específica, mulheres entre 41 e 49 anos apresentaram o dobro de risco de mortalidade por neoplasias em comparação com o grupo de referência. No terceiro artigo, foi realizada uma revisão sistemática e meta-análise dos fatores reprodutivos associados à menopausa natural. Os três fatores estudados apresentaram uma associação com a menopausa tardia. As mulheres com uso de anticoncepcionais orais em relação àquelas que não relataram uso de anticoncepcionais orais (HR=0.86, CI=0.79, 0.92), as com idade da menarca >=13 anos comparadas àquelas com idade da menarca <13 anos (HR=0.88, CI=0.84, 0.93) e aquelas que relataram ter um filho ou mais comparadas com as que não tiveram filhos (HR=0.80, CI=0.76, 0.85). / Introduction: The increase of the elderly population in Brazil has raised concerns about their care and the determinants of survival and incidence of chronic diseases. Menopause is defined as the permanent end of a woman\'s menstruation and is associated with the decline of the release of estrogens due to loss of follicular function, indicating the end of the reproductive phase of a woman\'s life. Age at menopause has been linked with mortality and morbidity in international studies. The first article of this thesis analyzed the factors associated with age at natural menopause among women of the SABE study cohort (Health, Well-Being, Aging). Smoking and education were associated with earlier menopause for the three waves analyzed: 2000, 2006 and 2010. Current smokers had 35% higher risk of earlier natural menopause (HR=1.35, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.62) and former smokers had 27% higher risk of earlier natural menopause (HR=1.27, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.50), in comparison with never smokers. Regarding education, women with 8 years or more of formal education had 33% lower risk of earlier natural menopause (HR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.50, 0.89) than women with no education. Marital status and parity were associated with later age at natural menopause only in 2006. In the second article, a survival analysis was performed according to age at natural menopause in women from SABE 2000. We found a total of 444 deaths from 2000 to 2016. Women with earlier menopause had 48% increased risk of all-cause mortality (HR=1.48, 95% IC: 1.03, 2.14) compared to women with age at menopause between 50 and 54 years (reference group). Regarding cause-specific mortality, women with ages at natural menopause between 41 and 49 had twice the risk of cancer mortality compared to the reference group. In the third article, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the reproductive factors associated with natural menopause. The three factors analyzed were statistically associated with later menopause: women with use of oral contraceptives before menopause compared to women with no use of oral contraceptive (HR=0.86, CI=0.79, 0.92), women with age at menarche >=13 compared to women with age at menarche <13 years (HR=0.88, CI=0.84, 0.93) and those with one or more live births compared to nulliparous women (HR=0.80, CI=0.76, 0.85).

Importância. O uso de anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral é associado ao aumento do risco de eventos cardiovasculares adversos desde a sua introdução na prática clínica. O mecanismo exato pelo qual podem alterar o risco ainda não foi esclarecido, sendo escassa a literatura que avalia a ação dessa classe de medicação no sistema nervoso autonômico. Objetivo. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito de contraceptivo contendo 20 mcg de etinilestradiol e 3 mg de drospirenona sobre a variabilidade da frequência cardíaca, da sensibilidade do barorreflexo e sobre a pressão arterial de mulheres saudáveis. Métodos. Trata-se de estudo prospectivo controlado com 69 mulheres saudáveis, divididas em dois grupos: 36 voluntárias que fizeram uso de anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral, e 33 voluntárias que utilizaram métodos contraceptivos não-hormonais. As mulheres foram avaliadas em dois momentos, antes da introdução do método contraceptivo e seis meses após seu uso. Para a aquisição dos dados, utilizou-se o Finomoter® (FMS, Finapres Medical System, Anhem, The Netherlands), obtendo-se de forma não invasiva registros contínuos da curva da pressão arterial batimento a batimento. A análise estatística foi realizada para determinar diferenças entre os grupos e entre os momentos, sendo p < 0,05 considerado estatisticamente significativo. Resultados. No momento basal, não houve diferenças nos parâmetros demográficos, hemodinâmicos e autonômicos entre os grupos. Além disso, a comparação dos diversos parâmetros hemodinâmicos e autonômicos ao final de seis meses do método contraceptivo não evidenciou diferença tanto entre os grupos como no decorrer do tempo. Conclusão. O uso de contraceptivo contendo 20 mcg de etinilestradiol e 3 mg de drospirenona não causou alterações significativas nos parâmetros hemodinâmicos e autonômicos de mulheres saudáveis / Background. The use of combined oral contraceptives has been associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events. Whether these drugs alter cardiac autonomic nervous system control is not completely determined. Objective. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a contraceptive containing 20 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone on the heart rate variability, baroreflex sensitivity and blood pressure of healthy women. Methods. This is a prospective controlled trial with 69 healthy women allocated in two groups: 36 volunteers under oral combined contraceptive use and 33 volunteers under use of non-hormonal contraceptives methods. Subjects were tested before the introduction of the contraceptive method and 6 months after its use. The Finometer® (FMS, Finapres Medical System, Anhem, The Netherlands) was used for data acquisition, obtaining noninvasively continuous records of the blood pressure curve beat to beat. Statistical analysis was performed to determine differences between groups and times, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Results. At baseline, there were no differences in demographic, hemodynamic and autonomic parameters between groups. A comparison of various hemodynamic and autonomic parameters after 6 months of birth control methods showed no difference between both groups as over time. Conclusion. A contraceptive containing 20 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone causes no significant changes in hemodynamic and autonomic parameters of healthy women

This essay examines male contraceptive responsibility in theory and practice, within the framework of experiences of existing contraceptives, as well as views on new contraceptives for men that are being researched.    In today’s Sweden, contraception is largely a female area. However, with progress on the area of research into new hormonal male contraceptives, we might be headed towards a different reality. In hope of gaining a fuller understanding of contraceptive experiences, this paper aims to contribute to the understudied area of men and reproduction, and add understanding of how men would approach a new contraceptive.    The empirical material consists of in-depth interviews with five male Medicine students and Intern Physicians living in Sweden – some of the people who are going to influence other’s contraceptive realities in their professional practice. The essay explores the social contexts in which these men’s personal contraceptive experiences and thoughts around responsibility are created.    The results show that women use contraceptive methods to a greater extent than men do. However, it is thought among the students and Physicians that contraceptive responsibility should be equal between the genders, and the approach to using a new male contraceptive is positive.    Female contraceptive use is understood by the informants as a “burden”, the sharing of which is posed as the main reason to use new male contraceptives. New male contraceptives are hence found to be understood as a female right, rather than a male right.    The essay shows that perceptions of responsibilities for contraception are rooted in cultural discourses, such as the assumption that women are more concerned to avoid pregnancy, and that it is difficult to develop contraceptives for men. Therefore, new male contraceptives might extend the possibilities for men to be involved in contraception – but our gendered ideas of, for example risk, might not change just because new contraceptives become available.

Importância. O uso de anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral é associado ao aumento do risco de eventos cardiovasculares adversos desde a sua introdução na prática clínica. O mecanismo exato pelo qual podem alterar o risco ainda não foi esclarecido, sendo escassa a literatura que avalia a ação dessa classe de medicação no sistema nervoso autonômico. Objetivo. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito de contraceptivo contendo 20 mcg de etinilestradiol e 3 mg de drospirenona sobre a variabilidade da frequência cardíaca, da sensibilidade do barorreflexo e sobre a pressão arterial de mulheres saudáveis. Métodos. Trata-se de estudo prospectivo controlado com 69 mulheres saudáveis, divididas em dois grupos: 36 voluntárias que fizeram uso de anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral, e 33 voluntárias que utilizaram métodos contraceptivos não-hormonais. As mulheres foram avaliadas em dois momentos, antes da introdução do método contraceptivo e seis meses após seu uso. Para a aquisição dos dados, utilizou-se o Finomoter® (FMS, Finapres Medical System, Anhem, The Netherlands), obtendo-se de forma não invasiva registros contínuos da curva da pressão arterial batimento a batimento. A análise estatística foi realizada para determinar diferenças entre os grupos e entre os momentos, sendo p < 0,05 considerado estatisticamente significativo. Resultados. No momento basal, não houve diferenças nos parâmetros demográficos, hemodinâmicos e autonômicos entre os grupos. Além disso, a comparação dos diversos parâmetros hemodinâmicos e autonômicos ao final de seis meses do método contraceptivo não evidenciou diferença tanto entre os grupos como no decorrer do tempo. Conclusão. O uso de contraceptivo contendo 20 mcg de etinilestradiol e 3 mg de drospirenona não causou alterações significativas nos parâmetros hemodinâmicos e autonômicos de mulheres saudáveis / Background. The use of combined oral contraceptives has been associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events. Whether these drugs alter cardiac autonomic nervous system control is not completely determined. Objective. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a contraceptive containing 20 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone on the heart rate variability, baroreflex sensitivity and blood pressure of healthy women. Methods. This is a prospective controlled trial with 69 healthy women allocated in two groups: 36 volunteers under oral combined contraceptive use and 33 volunteers under use of non-hormonal contraceptives methods. Subjects were tested before the introduction of the contraceptive method and 6 months after its use. The Finometer® (FMS, Finapres Medical System, Anhem, The Netherlands) was used for data acquisition, obtaining noninvasively continuous records of the blood pressure curve beat to beat. Statistical analysis was performed to determine differences between groups and times, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Results. At baseline, there were no differences in demographic, hemodynamic and autonomic parameters between groups. A comparison of various hemodynamic and autonomic parameters after 6 months of birth control methods showed no difference between both groups as over time. Conclusion. A contraceptive containing 20 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone causes no significant changes in hemodynamic and autonomic parameters of healthy women