There are apprehensions that genetic modification of maize with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) may have negative effects on soil biodiversity, ecosystem processes and functions. This study aimed at determining the effect of Bt maize crop, Bt maize residues and its genetic modification on microbial biomass carbon (MBC), selected enzyme activities, vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi and N and P release patterns. The study was conducted under field, glasshouse and laboratory conditions. In 2010/2011 season, four maize cultivars; DKC 61-25B (Bt), DKC 61-24 (non-Bt), PAN 6Q-321B (Bt) and PAN6777 (non-Bt) were planted. Determination of MBC, enzyme activities and fungal spore count was done at 42, 70, and 105 days after planting (DAP). A loam soil amended with Bt or non-Bt maize leaf residues from a study of 2009/2010 season was incubated to investigate effects of Bt maize residues on MBC and soil enzyme activities. Leaf residues of Bt and non-Bt maize cultivars (DKC 61-25B, DKC 61-24, PAN 6Q-321B and PAN6777) were used and soil without residues was used as a control. Samples were collected at 7, 28 and 56 days of incubation (DOI). An incubation study was also carried out in the laboratory to determine the effect of Bt maize residues (i.e. leaf, stem and root) and its genetic modification on N and P release patterns. Residues of DKC 61-25B, DKC 61-24, PAN 6Q-321B and PAN6777and soil without residues as a control were incubated in the laboratory. After destructive sampling at 0, 7, 14, 28, and 56 DOI, N in the form of NH4-N and NO3-N and P mineralisation were determined. Amendment of soil with residues enhanced MBC (p < 0.05) at all the sampling dates. For example MBC increased from 95 in the control to 146.3 mg/kg in the DKC 61-25B treatment at the end of the glasshouse trial. In the field DKC 61-25B had 9.1 mg/kg greater MBC than DKC 61-24, while PAN 6Q-321B had 23.9 mg/kg more MBC than PAN6777 at the end of the trial. However, no differences (p < 0.05) were observed in enzyme activities under field and glasshouse conditions except for dehydrogenase that had greater activity where DKC 61-25B and PAN 6777 were grown. There were no differences between the type of residues (Bt and non-Bt) on enzyme activities tested. However, differences were observed among the sampling dates. No effects of Bt maize crop on fungal spore count were observed. Similarly no differences were observed in leaf, stem and root tissues composition between Bt and non-Bt maize cultivars. Net N and P mineralisation from Bt maize cultivars did not differ from that of non-Bt maize cultivars. However, differences were observed among the cultivars. The results of this study suggested that Bt maize with Bt MON810 event can be grown in the central region of the Eastern Cape (EC), South Africa without affecting MBC, soil enzyme activities, VAM, and release of N and P nutrients from its residues.

Thesis (M. Sc. Agric.(Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Nightshade (Solanum retroflexum Dun.) is among the most important indigenous leafy vegetables in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa, due to its high values of beta-carotene, vitamin E, folic acid, ascorbic acid, calcium, iron and protein. Vhembe District occurs in the tropical regions of Limpopo Province and the production of vegetables is dependent upon the availability of irrigation water. An Integrated Drip Irrigation System (IDIS) and a 3S planter were developed to save water by planting several plants/hole of drip irrigation system. The subsystems in IDIS allow for the production of different crops with different water requirements, whereas the 3S planter can be used for planting from one to nine plants/hole of drip irrigation system. Also, the subsystems could be used in assessing irrigation interval for crops under various planting densities. The interaction of irrigation interval and planting density of S. retroflexum had not been documented. The objective of this study, therefore, was to determine the interactive effects of irrigation interval and planting density on biomass yield and chemical nutrient elements (summer harvest only) of S. retroflexum under field conditions. The irrigation interval and planting density/hole were arranged in a split-plot experimental design, with eight replications. The main plot was irrigation interval and the subplot was the planting densities. Harvesting was done twice for both summer and winter experiments. The first harvest (H1) was done at 6 weeks after transplanting, with the second harvest (H2) being done at six weeks after the first harvest. Fresh shoots were oven-dried at 60°C for 72 h for the determination of dry matter. Mature leaves were powdered and analysed for mineral content (Ca, P, K, Mg, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) using the ICPE-9000. Data were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software. In the summer experiment, the interaction was significant (P ≤ 0.05) for dry shoot mass at H1 and H2. However, the contribution of xv the interaction in the total treatment variation (TTV) of the variable was negligent and therefore, only single factors were reported. Irrigation interval and planting density had highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) effects on plant variables during H1 and H2 in summer and winter. However, irrigation interval effects for dry shoot mass were not significant for summer H2. Interaction effects were significant for Ca, P, K, Mg, Mn and Cu in leaf tissues during summer H1, but were not significant for Na, Fe and Zn. Also, irrigation interval was significant for Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu during summer H1, whereas planting density had no significant effects for all chemical nutrients except for Ca, P and K during summer H1. Dry shoot mass of S. retroflexum increased linearly with increasing irrigation interval and planting density. Results suggested that most nutrient elements increased with deficit irrigation water and higher planting density, whilst P decreased under high planting density. The study showed that there is a high potential for saving water through longer irrigation intervals and produce good high yields at a higher planting density. In conclusion, the use of IDIS and 3S planter to promote growth and accumulation of essential nutrient elements on S. retroflexum demonstrated that longer irrigation interval and higher plant density per drip irrigation hole could be suitable for cultivation of this indigenous vegetable. The recommendation of this study is that higher planting density and longer irrigation intervals are key determinants of higher biomass yield and water saving strategies for large-scale production of the crop. Further, the mineral composition of the crop was under the influence of higher planting density and irrigation intervals.

Thesis (M. A. (Agricultural Management)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020 / Field experiments were conducted at two locations; University of Limpopo (Syferkuil) and University of Venda (Thohoyandou) during 2015 and 2016 winter cropping seasons. The objectives of this study were to determine; the effect of genotype (ACC# 1, 3, 4 and 7) and planting density (33, 25 and 20 plants/m2) on four chickpea genotypes having contrasting growth patterns and also to determine the effect genotype and planting density on water use and water use efficiency of four chickpea genotypes having contrasting growth patterns. The experimental design was randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. Plant height, number of primary and secondary branches, grain yield and yield components (number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, Harvest Index and 100 seed weight [100-SW] and above ground biomass, and were determined at different growth stages. Data obtained was subjected to analyses of variance using the general linear model of Genstat 17th edition. Significant differences between the treatments means were compared using the standard error of difference (LSD) of the means at 5% level. Correlation analyses were performed to assess the relationship between parameters. Plant height varied with genotype from 41 cm (84 DAE) to 44 cm (118 cm) at Syferkuil and 41 (56 DAE) to 44 cm (63 DAE) at Thohoyandou. Primary branches was not significantly affected by genotype and planting density at both locations and seasons. Planting density had significant effect on number of secondary branches, greater number was recorded at low (32, 6) density at Syferkuil in 2016. Above ground biomass was significantly affected by planting density at Syferkuil during in 2015 (5344 kg ha-1) and 2016 (3701 kg ha-1) growing seasons. Genotype and planting density did not affect number of pods plant-1, number of seeds plant-1, 100 SW (100 seed weight), and Harvest index were not significant at both locations and seasons. Grain yield was significantly affected by planting density at Syferkuil in 2015 and Thohoyandou in 2016. Grain yield increased with the increase in planting density at both locations. Two field experiments were conducted at University of Venda (Thohoyandou) during 2015 and 2016 winter cropping seasons. This study aimed at assessing the effect of genotype v and planting density on water use efficiency of four chickpea genotypes with contrasting growth patterns. Crop water use (WU) was determined by monitoring soil water content at 7-day intervals using a neutron probe and, water use efficiency (WUE) was determined as a ratio of crop biomass and grain yield to WU. Genotype and planting density had no significant effect on WU in 2015 and 2016. Genotype and planting density had no significant effect on biomass production (WUEb) and grain yield production (WUEg) in 2015. In contrast, WUEb and WUEg was significantly affected by planting density in 2016. WUEb was 43.2% greater at high density compared to low density. Similarly, WUEg was 39.3% greater at high density compared to low density. WUEb and WUEg increased with the increase with planting density. Therefore, manipulation of management practices such as planting density may increase chickpea production. Keywords: Planting density, genotype, grain yield and yield components, water use efficiency. / National Research Foundation (NRF) and University of Venda Capacity Development

Thesis (Ph.D. (Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Sustainable food production has been a major challenge in the era of climate change and a growing population in the twenty-first century. However, climate change scenarios such as extreme temperatures and fluctuations in annual precipitation continue to pose a great threat to agricultural production systems. On the other hand, anthropogenic activities such as conventional farming continue to contribute to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases while not sustaining agricultural production. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) developed the concept of Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) production with the idea of securing food in the face of global change. No-tillage and intercropping systems are among the traditional practices that are advocated as components of climate-smart traditional practices, especially in the semi-arid regions of Africa like the Limpopo Province. Producing sorghum and cowpeas using CSA practices such as intercropping under no-tillage is envisaged to increase productivity and soil fertility under Limpopo Province's dryland conditions. However, there is still limited information on how grain sorghum-cowpea intercrop will respond in terms of growth, physiological productivity, and carbon dioxide emissions in the system, especially under no-tillage and different growing conditions. Furthermore, more field data is required for predictions of future scenarios using simulating crop models such as the Agricultural Production system sImulator (APSIM). Hence, a no-till Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) in a 2 x 4 x 2 factorial arrangement was conducted at two locations (Syferkuil and Ofcolaco) in the Limpopo Province during the 2018/19 and 2020/21 cropping seasons to generate data on sorghum and cowpea growth, physiology, productivity as well as carbon dynamics under planted and simulated intercropping system. Leaf gaseous exchange and leaf area index (LAI) were measured on fully developed grain sorghum and cowpea leaves in both the binary and sole cultures of sorghum and cowpea. The CO2 measurements were taken from each plot using a GMP343 CO2 probe along with an MI70 data logger. Aboveground biomass was collected for each crop from two plants at vegetative, flowering, physiological and harvest maturity and oven-dried at 65 oC for 48 hours. In the 2020/21 cropping season, cowpea at Ofcolaco failed to produce grain. Hence, only the grain yield of the 2018/19 cropping season from Ofcolaco is presented in this thesis. Grains collected for each crop from a 2.7m2 area were taken to the laboratory to determine grain yield and yield components. Harvest index (HI) and land equivalent ratio (LER) for each crop were also determined. In the laboratory, the total nitrogen (%) and natural abundance of 15N (δ15N‰) were determined using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer with an N analyzer. Growth (biomass) and yield (grain) data obtained from APSIM were compared with data collected from a two-year field experiment at Syferkuil. Multi-variate analysis of variance (ANOVA) model to fit each response variable using the Statistical Analysis System (21 SAS version 9.4). Mean separation was done where the means were different using the least significant difference (LSD) at probability levels of p ≤ 0.05. Intercropping system and the density of the companion crop cowpea had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on the physiological responses of sorghum and cowpea, cowpea yield and yield components at the two experimental sites across seasons. However, grain yield and yield components of sorghum were not affected by intercropping or the density of cowpea. Only cultivars of sorghum were significantly different for grain yield and yield components. At Syferkuil, Enforcer produced the highest grain yield of 4338 kg ha-1 in 2018/19, while NS5511 accumulated the highest grain yield of 2120 kg ha-1 during the 2020/21 cropping seasons. At Ofcolaco, Enforcer and Avenger were observed to be relatively high-yielding cultivars with a mean grain yield of 2625 kg ha- 1 and 1191 kg ha-1 during the 2018/19 and 2020/21 cropping seasons, respectively. In the 2018/19 and 2020/21 cropping seasons, respectively, cowpea accumulated about 93% and 77% more grain yield in sole compared to binary culture. At Ofcolaco, about 96% more grain yield was obtained in sole compared to binary cultures during the 2018/19 cropping season. Furthermore, cowpea accumulated over 55% and 49% of grain yield when grown at high compared to low population density at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco, respectively. The investigation on the impact of the intercropping system on CO2 emissions and soil carbon stocks revealed that in 2018/19 at Syferkuil and 2020/21 at Ofcolaco, intercropping systems emitted 11% and 19% less CO2 respectively than the sole cropping systems. In both diverse agro-ecological sites, low cowpea density consistently resulted in higher CO2 emissions than high density. The sorghum-cowpea intercropping system significantly influenced the biological nitrogen fixation of cowpea. Intercropping was found to improve the biological nitrogen fixation of cowpea if a density of 74074 plants ha-1 is used. The APSIM model was able to capture the dynamics of biomass and grain yields in the sole and intercropping system under different densities of cowpea. The findings of this study revealed some useful insights. Firstly, biomass accumulation depended on the cultivar in intercrop as well as the density of cowpea. Secondly, cowpea at a density of 74074 plants ha1 was found to be a good crop to intercrop with grain sorghum as it did not show any significant variation in terms of grain yield and yield components of sorghum. The sorghum cultivar, Enforcer and NS5511 were the best performing cultivars in terms of grain yields at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco. Thirdly, the intercropping system under high cowpea density reduced CO2 emission rates while improving soil nitrogen (N) and carbon stocks. Based on the results of this study, grain sorghum-cowpea intercrop can be adopted as a component of a climate-smart practice to improve crop growth, physiology, as well as productivity compared to sole cropping. However, the grain sorghum cultivar and the density of cowpea should be taken into consideration as they affect the productivity of the two crops. The two seasons data generated from this study was useful in simulating the productivity of intercropping practice using APSIM. However, more field and weather data is required to run long-term simulations on intercropping as a component of the climate-smart method using crop modelling techniques. / National Research Foundation (NRF), Departments of Science and Innovation (DSI) and VLIR-IUC (Belgium)

Tradicionalmente, em cultivo sob sistema de plantio direto, a adubação é feita para a cultura produtora de grãos e durante o cultivo de pastagens, poucos são os casos em que se utiliza algum tipo de fertilização. A demanda por nutrientes de uma cultura pode ser atendida pela ciclagem de nutrientes do sistema e pelas entradas ou adições oriundas da adubação mineral, porém de forma geral a ciclagem não tem sido tratada como uma ferramenta importante no processo de fornecimento de nutrientes para as plantas. O tipo e a condição em que se encontra o resíduo vegetal em decomposição sobre o solo pode afetar a eficiência da ciclagem de nutrientes principalmente o momento em que o nutriente da palhada vai ser liberado. Deste modo, faz-se importante um estudo dos efeitos da adubação nitrogenada e o manejo de altura do pasto sobre a produtividade de grãos de milho, os níveis de nitrogênio (N) mineral do solo bem como sobre a dinâmica da decomposição dos resíduos produzidos em um sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. Foi realizado um experimento dividido em três fases: 1- cultivo e manejo de sorgo forrageiro sob pastejo; 2- cultivo de aveia preta sob pastejo e 3- cultivo de milho para produção de grãos Nas fases 1 e 2 o experimento foi conduzido em um fatorial 2 x 2 sendo o primeiro fator duas alturas de de manejo do pasto, alta e baixa altura do pasto (AAP e BAP) e o segundo fator foi a aplicação de 200 kg ha-1nitrogênio na pastagem ou na cultura de grãos (NP e NG). Na fase 3 que era composta pela produção de grãos de milho o experimento foi um tri-fatorial com parcela dividida sendo que os tratamentos são os mesmos das fases anteriores, porém as parcelas foram divididas e a elas incluido um terceiro fator: doses de nitrogênio aplicadas em cobertura na cultura do milho (0, 100, 200 e 300 Kg ha-1). O experimento foi realizado em delineamento blocos ao acaso com três repetições e foi instalado no município de Abelardo Luz – SC no período de outubro de 2012 a agosto de 2014. Avaliou-se a velocidade de decomposição dos resíduos das culturas implantadas, bem como a liberação de nutrientes destes resíduos, o efeito dos tratamentos sobre o N-mineral do solo e a produtividade de grãos de milho e seus componentes principais. Os resultados demonstraram quea antecipação da adubação nitrogenada a qual é aplicada na fase de pastagens em sistemas de integração lavoura-pecuária mostrou-se uma tecnologia eficiente podendo vir a substituir a adubação de cobertura de plantas de milho cultivadas na sequencia. O potássio componente dos residuos vegetais apresentou elevada taxa de liberação sendo liberado em grande quantidade já nos primeiros dias após a secagem dos resíduos culturais. Apesar de consideravelmente alta a dose de nitrogênio utilizada tanto na pastagem quanto na cultura de grãos não apresentou riscos de lixiviação de nitrato no período avaliado. / Traditionally in no-tillage systems, fertilization is done to the catch crop. In general nutrient cycling in crop systems has not been treated as an important tool in the process of nutrient supplying for plants. The type and the condition in which vegetable residuesis decomposed can affect the efficiency of nutrient cycling.This study assessed the effect of anticipated nitrogen fertilization in crop-livestock systems on cultivated cornproduction, rate ofnutrient release from plant residue, and theN-minerallevels of soil. The study was carried out in the city Abelardo Luz (SC) in a Clayey Oxisol. The experimental design was a randomized block design with three replications. The treatments were arranged in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement. The first factor was N Fertilization Time: in the N-Pasture level, nitrogen (200 kg ha-1 N) and N-Grains level, no nitrogen was applied. The second factor was the Grazing Height, characterized by two sward heights of oat at 15 cm (Low Height Pasture) and at 30 cm (High Height Pasture). Corn hybrid ‘Máximus’ was sowed in 10thOctober, 31 days after the removal of animals. In the twelve resulting plots from the combination of treatments on pasture phase (N Fertilization Time x Grazing Height) rates of N-fertilizer (0, 100, 200 e 300 Kg ha-1 of N) as urea were allocated in the split plot.We conclude that anticipated N fertilization of winter cover crop pasture to provide high-quality forage and carry-over N to the subsequent corn crop and may eventually replace side drees nitrogen fertilization on corn and can improve overall N fertilizer efficiency use in integrated crop-livestock systems.The rate of K release from plant residues is very fast, releasing large quantities in the first days after plant desiccation.Despite of considerably high nitrogen dose used in both the pasture and at the grain crop it was not observed nitrate leaching risks during the study period.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture (Crop Science)) -- University of Limpopo, 2004. / Canon Collins Educational Trust of Southern Africa (CCETSA), and the National Research Foundation (NRF)

CAPES / O sistema plantio direto é o modelo predominante no cenário agrícola da região Sul do país. Assim, a utilização de plantas de cobertura é relevante em função do aporte de fitomassa, para proteção do solo em superfície e contribuição na ciclagem e/ou fixação de nutrientes, em especial o nitrogênio (N), com liberação para a cultura subsequente. Dentre as espécies hibernais, é constatado uso predominante da aveia para obtenção de palha no sistema. Embora aporte elevadas quantidades de resíduos, não é a espécie preferencial para anteceder o cultivo de milho, cereal de expressiva importância na região Sudoeste do Paraná. Objetivou-se avaliar a capacidade produtiva do milho em plantio direto, na ausência ou presença de adubação nitrogenada em cobertura, sobre resíduos de plantas de cobertura hibernais nas condições edafoclimáticas da região Sudoeste do Paraná. A instalação do plantio direto foi realizada em 2010 na área experimental pertencente à UTFPR, Câmpus Dois Vizinhos, sob Latossolo Vermelho. Para o presente estudo, foram utilizados dados referentes a três safras agrícolas (2012/2013; 2013/2014 e 2014/2015). O delineamento experimental foi de blocos ao acaso, em parcelas subdivididas, com três repetições. As parcelas principais foram constituídas por plantas de cobertura (aveia preta, azevém, centeio, nabo forrageiro, ervilhaca comum, tremoço branco, consórcio Aveia+Ervilhaca e Aveia+Ervilhaca+Nabo), que antecederam a cultura do milho. Nas subparcelas, foram utilizadas duas doses de adubação nitrogenada (0 e 180 kg ha cobertura na cultura do milho. As maiores taxas de cobertura ocorreram nos consórcios, com 95% aos 62 dias após a semeadura das espécies. O efeito residual da dose 180 kg ha incrementou 4,8% a taxa de cobertura das plantas hibernais no ano seguinte. O efeito residual dos 180 kg ha poáceas. A ervilhaca comum acumulou 32 kg de N para cada tonelada de matéria seca (MS) adicionada. A aveia preta e o centeio mantem mais de 50% dos resíduos em cobertura do solo, após 120 dias, enquanto o azevém e ervilhaca comum proporcionam baixa proteção. Consórcio Aveia+Ervilhaca+Nabo, ervilhaca comum e tremoço branco, liberaram as maiores quantidades de N, entre 52 e 59 kg ha diâmetro e comprimento de espigas, número de grãos por fileira e número total de grãos por espiga de milho, sob ausência de N mineral. A massa de mil grãos é aumentada em 12,4% pela adição de 180 kg ha de 180 kg ha fabáceas, brássica e consórcio Aveia+Ervilhaca+Nabo, e de 5,6 Mg ha a poáceas. Os consórcios aportaram quantidade entre 4,0 a 6,4 Mg ha estudo. Não há efeito da aplicação de N mineral para os componentes de rendimento do milho, quando cultivado sobre ervilhaca comum. Sistemas compostos por fabáceas, brássica e consórcio proporcionam produtividades de grãos similares aos sistemas com adição de 180 kg ha Palavras-chave: Culturas de cobertura. Plantio direto. Produtividade de grãos. Zea mays em Agronomia (Área de Concentração: Produção vegetal), Universidade -1 de N), em -1 de N, -1 de N no sistema milho/plantas de cobertura, reduziu 21% a relação C/N das -1 . Fabáceas, brássica e consórcios influenciam positivamente o -1 de N mineral. O incremento médio de produtividade de grãos pela adição de N em relação a dose 0 kg ha -1 -1 -1 de N é de 2,1 Mg ha de grãos de milho sobre de grãos em sucessão de MS nos anos de -1 -1 Aveia+Ervilhaca+Nabo, antecedendo o milho, na ausência de N mineral, proporcionam produtividades de grãos similares aos sistemas com adição de 180 kg ha-1 de N. / The no-tillage system is the predominant model in the agricultural scenario of southern Brazil. Thus, the use of cover crops is significant due to the addition of biomass to protect the soil surface, and contribute to the cycling and/or fixing of nutrients, and in particular nitrogen (N) with liberation for the subsequent culture. Among the cool season species, it was found predominant use of oat to obtain straw to system. Though large quantities input of residue is not the preferred species to precede the corn, cereal with relevant importance in the Paraná Southwest region. It was aimed to evaluate the productivity capacity of corn in no-tillage, in the absence or presence of nitrogen fertilization, on waste of winter cover crops on soil and climatic conditions of the Paraná Southwest region. The installation of no-tillage was held in 2010 in the experimental area belonging to UTFPR, Campus Dois Vizinhos, on a Red Latosol. For the present study, we used data relating to three agricultural years (2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015). The experimental design was randomized block design with split plots with three replications. The main plots consisted of systems composed by cover crops (black oat, ryegrass, rye, turnip, vetch, white lupine, aot+vetch consortium and oat+vetch+turnip), preceding corn. In the subplots were used two doses of nitrogen fertilization (0 and 180 kg ha N) coverage in maize.The biggest coverage rates occurred in the consortium with 95% at 62 days after sowing. The residual effect of 180 kg ha cool season plants following year. The residual effect of 180 kg ha systems, reduced in 21% the C/N ratio of poaceae. The common vetch accumulated 32 kg N per ton of MS added. The oat and rye keeps more than 50% waste to the land cover, after 120 days, while the ryegrass and vetch provide low soil protection. Consortium oat+vetch+turnip, vetch and white lupine, released the largest amounts of N, between 52 and 59 kg ha brassica and consortia positively influencing the diameter and length of cobs, number of kernels per row and, total number of grains per ear of corn, in the absence of mineral N. The weight of a thousand grains was increased by 12.4% by the addition of 180 kg ha increase in productivity of grain by the addition of 180 kg ha N, was 2.1 Mg ha 5.6 Mg ha 6.4 Mg ha components when cultivated on vetch. Systems containing fabaceae, brassica and consortium oat+vetch+turnip, predating the corn, in the absence of mineral N, provided similar grain yelds inrelation to the systems with the addition of 180 kg ha Keywords: Cover crops. No-tillage. Grain yield. Zea mays - 1 -1 N, increased 4.8% coverage rate in the of N in corn/cover crops -1 -1 . Fabaceae, -1 N mineral. The average N, in relation to dose 0 kg ha corn kernels on fabaceae, brassica and consortium oat+vetch+turnip, and poaceae the grains in succession. The consortium added amount between 4.0 the DM in the years of study. There was no effect of mineral N rate for corn yield components when cultivated on vetch. Systems containing fabaceae, brassica and consortium oat+vetch+turnip, predating the corn, in the absence of mineral N, provided similar grain yelds inrelation to the systems with the addition of 180 kg ha-1 N.

O sistema de semeadura direta é caracterizado pelo mínimo revolvimento do solo e manutenção de resíduos vegetais em cobertura. Contudo, o descaso com o manejo do solo, tem proporcionado, sistematicamente, o surgimento de camadas compactadas em áreas agrícolas conduzidas nesse sistema, as quais podem ocasionar a diminuição da produtividade das culturas. Desse modo, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os parâmetros de máquina, solo e planta em função do cultivo de plantas de cobertura e quatro profundidades de atuação da haste sulcadora de adubo, em Latossolo compactado conduzido em sistema de semeadura direta. O experimento foi realizado em duas safras agrícolas (2013/2014 e 2014/2015) na área experimental da UTFPR, em um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico, com textura muito argilosa (76% de argila). O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento de blocos ao acaso, sendo os tratamentos dispostos no esquema de faixas com dois fatores e quatro repetições, totalizando 32 unidades experimentais. Os tratamentos principais foram compostos pela combinação de quatro profundidades de atuação da haste sulcadora de adubo (6,5; 9,5; 12,5 e 15 cm) no processo de semeadura do milho e os secundários pelo cultivo de duas plantas de cobertura de inverno (aveia preta e nabo forrageiro). Os dados obtidos foram submetidos à análise de variância para verificação dos efeitos dos fatores profundidades de atuação da haste, plantas de cobertura do solo e sua interação. Quando o teste F foi significativo a 5% de probabilidade, as médias foram comparadas pelo teste de Tukey para os fatores qualitativos (plantas de cobertura de inverno). Para os fatores quantitativos (profundidades de atuação da haste sulcadora) e interações foi aplicado o teste de regressão polinomial. O aprofundamento da haste sulcadora ampliou a força de tração e a potência requerida na barra no processo de semeadura, bem como diminui a velocidade média do conjunto mecanizado e a força de tração específica, e apesar de gerar maior mobilização do solo na linha de semeadura não demostrou ser uma prática de manejo eficiente para aumentar a produtividade do milho. A utilização de plantas de cobertura e profundidades de atuação da haste, entre si, não modificaram os parâmetros de resistência do solo à penetração, densidade e porosidade do solo, na entrelinha de cultivo. A população final de plantas, o índice de velocidade de emergência de plântulas e os componentes de produção do milho não variaram em função da profundidade de atuação da haste sulcadora. / The system of direct sowing is characterized by the minimum tillage of the soil and maintenance of vegetal residues in cover. However, neglect with soil management has systematically provided the emergence of compacted layers in agricultural areas conducted in this system, which may lead to a decrease in crop productivity. Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate the machine, soil and plant parameters as a function of the cultivation of cover plants and four depths of the fertilizer routing rod, in a compacted Oxisol conducted in a no - tillage system. The experiment was carried out in two agricultural crops (2013/2014 and 2014/2015) in the experimental area of UTFPR, in a dystroferric Red Latosol, with a very clayey texture (76% clay). The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design, and the treatments were arranged in two - factor and four replicate bands, totaling 32 experimental units. The main treatments were composed by the combination of four depths of fertilizer routing (6.5, 9.5, 12.5 and 15 cm) in the corn sowing process and the secondary ones by the cultivation of two cover crops Winter (black oat and forage turnip). The obtained data were submitted to the analysis of variance to verify the effects of the factors depths of rod actuation, soil cover plants and their interaction. When the F test was significant at 5% probability, the means were compared by the Tukey test for the qualitative factors (winter cover plants). For the quantitative factors (furrow depths) and interactions, the polynomial regression test was applied. The deepening of the furrowing rod increased the traction force and the power required in the bar in the sowing process, as well as reducing the average velocity of the mechanized set and the specific traction force, and despite generating a greater mobilization of the soil in the sowing line. Has been shown to be an efficient management practice to increase maize productivity. The use of cover plants and stem depths, among themselves, did not modify soil resistance parameters to soil penetration, density and porosity, in the intercrop line. The final population of plants, seedling emergence speed index and maize production components did not vary according to the depth of action of the furrowing rod.

No estado do Paraná a atividade leiteira assume papel fundamental na manutenção e na viabilização econômica das propriedades, especialmente aquelas voltadas a agricultura familiar. Esta atividade tem na silagem de milho seu principal volumoso, nas épocas de carência alimentar, e para a maioria dos produtores é usada na alimentação do gado de leite o ano todo. O diagnóstico foi realizado na safra 2014/2015, em 14 áreas tradicionalmente utilizadas para produzir milho para silagem, coletando-se informações sobre o histórico de produção, além da observação sobre o espaçamento entre linhas das plantas de milho. Foram amostradas plantas inteiras de milho silagem para quantificação da produção de matéria verde (MV) e seca (MS) e teor e exportação de nutrientes. Também foram coletadas amostras de solo nas camadas de 0-10, 10-20 e 20-40 cm, coletando-se oito amostras simples de cada talhão estudado; nessas amostras foram determinados a matéria orgânica (MO), pH em CaCl2, alumínio trocável, fósforo, potássio, cálcio, magnésio, saturação por alumínio e saturação por bases. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o espaçamento entrelinhas de milho de 0,45 m apresenta maior produtividade média de MV e MS atingindo 58% e 50% a mais quando comparado ao espaçamento de 0,80 ou 0,90 m, respectivamente. Os baixos teores de MO, P e K nas análises de solo, nas camadas entre 10 e 40 cm do solo, apresentam correlação positiva, com os baixos índices de NPK na MS apurados na análise química da silagem. A acidez das áreas é maior na camada superficial (0-10 cm) e reduziu com a profundidade. Todas as áreas avaliadas apresentam teores de fósforo acima do nível de suficiência na camada superficial, porém com valores muito baixos, especialmente abaixo de 20 cm. Para potássio, 64% das amostras têm teores acima do nível de suficiência na camada superficial, porém em apenas duas áreas os valores podem ser considerados muito altos. A exceção de uma área, todas as demais apresentaram valores de matéria orgânica variando de médio a baixo, em todas as profundidades, evidenciando um certo esgotamento dos solos sob cultivos sucessivos de silagem. / In the state of Paraná the milk production activity for the family farmer takes fundamental role in the maintenance and economic viability of the sector in Paraná Southwest. This activity has in the corn silage its main bulky, in times of food shortage, and for most producers is used in feeding of milk cattle all year.The diagnosis was made in the 2014/2015 crop, in 14 areas traditionally used to produce corn for silage.Whole plant corn silage was sampled to quantify the green matter production (MV) and dried (MS) and nutrient content. Also soil samples were collected in the layers soil of 0-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm, by collecting 08 simple samples in each block it studied ; In this sample was determined the MO, pH CaCl2, SMP index, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum saturation and calculated the sum of bases. The results show that the spacing corn lines of 0.45 m presents a higher average productivity M.V. and M.S. reaching 58% and 50% more than compared to the spacing of 0.80 or 0.90 m; Low rates of NPK soil test, in layers between 10 and 40 cm from the ground, are positively correlated, hows low NPK rates in MS calculates on the chimecal analysis of whole plant silage. The acidity of the areas is greater in the surface layer (0-10-cm) and reduced with depth. All areas have evaluated phosphorus above the fill level in the surface layer, but with very low values, especially bellow 20 cm. For potassium, 64% of samples have levels above the fill level in the surface layer, but only in two areas values can be considered very high. The exception of one area, all other present values of organic material ranging from medium to low, at all depths, showing a certain exhaustion of soil under successive silage crops.

No estado do Paraná a atividade leiteira assume papel fundamental na manutenção e na viabilização econômica das propriedades, especialmente aquelas voltadas a agricultura familiar. Esta atividade tem na silagem de milho seu principal volumoso, nas épocas de carência alimentar, e para a maioria dos produtores é usada na alimentação do gado de leite o ano todo. O diagnóstico foi realizado na safra 2014/2015, em 14 áreas tradicionalmente utilizadas para produzir milho para silagem, coletando-se informações sobre o histórico de produção, além da observação sobre o espaçamento entre linhas das plantas de milho. Foram amostradas plantas inteiras de milho silagem para quantificação da produção de matéria verde (MV) e seca (MS) e teor e exportação de nutrientes. Também foram coletadas amostras de solo nas camadas de 0-10, 10-20 e 20-40 cm, coletando-se oito amostras simples de cada talhão estudado; nessas amostras foram determinados a matéria orgânica (MO), pH em CaCl2, alumínio trocável, fósforo, potássio, cálcio, magnésio, saturação por alumínio e saturação por bases. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o espaçamento entrelinhas de milho de 0,45 m apresenta maior produtividade média de MV e MS atingindo 58% e 50% a mais quando comparado ao espaçamento de 0,80 ou 0,90 m, respectivamente. Os baixos teores de MO, P e K nas análises de solo, nas camadas entre 10 e 40 cm do solo, apresentam correlação positiva, com os baixos índices de NPK na MS apurados na análise química da silagem. A acidez das áreas é maior na camada superficial (0-10 cm) e reduziu com a profundidade. Todas as áreas avaliadas apresentam teores de fósforo acima do nível de suficiência na camada superficial, porém com valores muito baixos, especialmente abaixo de 20 cm. Para potássio, 64% das amostras têm teores acima do nível de suficiência na camada superficial, porém em apenas duas áreas os valores podem ser considerados muito altos. A exceção de uma área, todas as demais apresentaram valores de matéria orgânica variando de médio a baixo, em todas as profundidades, evidenciando um certo esgotamento dos solos sob cultivos sucessivos de silagem. / In the state of Paraná the milk production activity for the family farmer takes fundamental role in the maintenance and economic viability of the sector in Paraná Southwest. This activity has in the corn silage its main bulky, in times of food shortage, and for most producers is used in feeding of milk cattle all year.The diagnosis was made in the 2014/2015 crop, in 14 areas traditionally used to produce corn for silage.Whole plant corn silage was sampled to quantify the green matter production (MV) and dried (MS) and nutrient content. Also soil samples were collected in the layers soil of 0-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm, by collecting 08 simple samples in each block it studied ; In this sample was determined the MO, pH CaCl2, SMP index, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum saturation and calculated the sum of bases. The results show that the spacing corn lines of 0.45 m presents a higher average productivity M.V. and M.S. reaching 58% and 50% more than compared to the spacing of 0.80 or 0.90 m; Low rates of NPK soil test, in layers between 10 and 40 cm from the ground, are positively correlated, hows low NPK rates in MS calculates on the chimecal analysis of whole plant silage. The acidity of the areas is greater in the surface layer (0-10-cm) and reduced with depth. All areas have evaluated phosphorus above the fill level in the surface layer, but with very low values, especially bellow 20 cm. For potassium, 64% of samples have levels above the fill level in the surface layer, but only in two areas values can be considered very high. The exception of one area, all other present values of organic material ranging from medium to low, at all depths, showing a certain exhaustion of soil under successive silage crops.