<p>The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account.</p><p>The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa.</p><p>The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.</p>

The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account. The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa. The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.

Cette recherche traite de l’influence translinguistique qu’exercent des langues apprises antérieurement sur l’apprentissage du français L2, L3 et L4 par des apprenants hellénophones. Une étude comparative a été menée auprès de 13 apprenants de français de niveaux linguistiques différents. La référence aux entités et l’expression de la temporalité ont été analysées dans les productions orales et écrites de ces sujets. / This work presents a study of the cross-linguistic influence of previously learned languages in second, third and fourth language acquisition, as it is the case for Greekspeaking learners of French as foreign language (FLE). A comparative study is conducted among 13 learners of English who have different linguistic background and proficiency. Reference to entities and the expression of temporality have been analyzed in the oral and the written data provided by the participants to the study.

<p dir="ltr">Upon acquiring or learning another language, cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is an inevitable phenomenon with which a bilingual speaker lives. One key aspect of CLI is its bidirectionality, flowing between both the first (L1) and second languages (L2) mutually affecting each other. However, investigations of L1 CLI on L2 have dominated previous bilingual studies, and despite the increasing amount of research on L2 CLI on L1, the phonetic and phonological domains remain relatively underexplored. The primary goal of the present study is to expand our understanding of the underlying mechanisms governing L2 CLI on L1 phonetics and phonology.</p><p dir="ltr">The present study investigates L2 CLI on L1 phonetics and phonology by examining both the speech perception and production of L1 sound categories among two different groups of bilinguals, Korean heritage speakers (HSs, <i>n</i> = 30) and long-term immigrants (LTIs, <i>n</i> = 27) group participants in the US, in comparison to L1(Korean)-immersed (L1-i) native speakers residing in South Korea (<i>n</i> = 30). Participants completed a series of three experimental tasks: (1) a three-alternative forced-choice (3AFC) identification task, (2) an AX discrimination task, and (3) a controlled reading paradigm task.</p><p dir="ltr">Experiment 1 (3AFC task) was conducted to investigate the extent and direction of L2 CLI in perceptual cue weighting to L1 speech categories. In this task, participants listened to a Korean word in each trial, potentially differing in the word-initial stop, and decided which word they heard from a real-word Korean minimal triplet /pul/ ‘fire,’ /p^hul/ ‘grass,’ and /p^*ul/ ‘horn.’ Specifically, the word-initial stop consisted of an eight-by-eight orthogonal voice onset time (VOT)–onset f0 continuum, created through a speech resynthesis technique. Based on the similarities and differences in the use of the two acoustic parameters between Korean (either onset f0 or VOT is a primary cue) and English stops (VOT is the primary cue), bilingual participants were expected to exhibit different cue-weighting patterns, as compared to L1-i speakers. The results from the mixed-effects logistic regression model analyses indicated that while HSs were less sensitive to the Korean primary cue, onset f0, compared to L1-i speakers—suggesting assimilation to L2 in the perceptual domain—LTIs exhibited greater sensitivity to this cue, indicating dissimilation from L2. It was also found that bilingual participants’ Korean dominance significantly influenced their cue weighting in the perception of Korean stops.</p><p dir="ltr">Experiment 2 (AX discrimination task) was administered to assess participants’ perceptual accuracy for L1 stop categories and the potential impact of L1 cue weighting, as estimated in Experiment 1, on their discrimination performance. Notably, the VOT in the stop stimuli used in the AX task were resynthesized to have a consistent VOT of 70 ms across all stimuli. This setup created a condition where participants had no choice but to rely solely on the onset f0 cue—the primary cue to the Korean lenis-aspirated stop contrast, rendering VOT, the primary cue for the voicing contrast in English stops, uninformative. The results from mixed-effects logistic regression models showed that HSs were significantly less accurate in discriminating their L1 stop categories without the VOT cue, while LTIs outperformed the L1-i speakers. That is, the LTI group, the most balanced group in terms of language dominance, had the highest accuracy in discriminating L1 contrasts among the participant groups. Furthermore, individual sensitivity to the onset f0 cue was found to be positively correlated with discrimination performance.</p><p dir="ltr">Experiment 3 (Controlled reading paradigm) aimed to examine L2 CLI on the implementation of acoustic parameters for L1 Korean stops, as well as the potential impact of proficiency and dominance on these parameters. Participants read aloud a list of minimal triplet stimuli differing in the word-initial stop within a carrier phrase. A machine-learning-based audio signal detection system was used to analyze the acoustic parameters, and Bayesian mixed-effects linear regression models, along with quadratic polynomial regression models, were implemented for statistical analysis of the processed data. The results of the production task mirrored the perception task (Experiment 1): HSs demonstrated assimilation to L2 via onset f0, while LTIs showed dissimilation, as compared to L1-i speakers. The analysis also revealed that the degree of bilingual balance in dominance and proficiency significantly influenced the implementation of onset f0, with more balanced bilinguals exhibiting greater category contrasts than less balanced bilinguals, regardless of whether they were Korean-dominant or English-dominant.</p><p dir="ltr">The findings from these experiments provide concrete evidence of L2 CLI in L1 phonetics and phonology. Importantly, the results demonstrate that not only the timing of L2 acquisition and the quantity and quality of L2 input but also the quality and quantity of L1 acquisition and bilingual balance contribute to the direction and the degree of L2 CLI in L1 speech. These findings align with the predictions of the revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r, Flege & Bohn, 2021) and expand its scope of application to include both HSs and LTIs. In particular, the evidence of category assimilation and dissimilation lends support to the bidirectional CLI hypothesis proposed by SLM-r. To conclude, the present dissertation expands our understanding of the nature of L2 CLI in L1 phonetics and phonology in bilingual speakers.</p>

Uutta ruotsinsuomalaista sanastoa kehittyy pääasiassa kahdella tavalla. Eniten uutta sanastoa syntyy epävirallisissa keskustelutilanteissa, mutta sanastoa luodaan myös tietoisesti, kun Kielenja kansanperinteen tutkimuslaitos antaa suosituksia esimerkiksi Ruotsin viranomaisten nimienkääntämisestä. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää, millaisia suomen yleiskielestä poikkeavia suomen sanoja Ruotsissa käytetään, ketkä niitä käyttävät sekä millaisia asenteitatällaisen sanaston käyttöön liittyy. Ruotsinsuomalaiselle vähemmistölle on tärkeää, että heidän kieltään tutkitaan, sillä siten voidaan kartuttaa tietoa vähemmistöstä, saada heidän käyttämästään kielestä tutkimukseen perustuvaa tietoa ja vahvistaa heidän ruotsinsuomalaista identiteettiään. Tutkimuksen empiirisenä aineistona on toisaalta Ruotsin radion suomenkielisen toimituksenvuosina 2016–2023 järjestämissä Vuoden ruotsinsuomalainen sana -äänestyksissä ehdotetut sanat ja toisaalta ruotsinsuomalaisten sanojen käyttöä ja sanoihin liittyviä asenteita kartoittava verkkokysely. Olen lajitellut äänestyksissä ehdotetut sanat lainasanatyypin, sanaluokan jaaihepiirin mukaan. Kyselytutkimuksessa olen analysoinut sekä määrällisen tiedon että vastauksia täydentävät vapaamuotoiset perustelut. Vuoden ruotsinsuomalainen sana -äänestysten aineistosta tehty tutkimus osoittaa, että suurin osa aineistossa esiintyvistä ruotsinsuomen sanoista on niin kutsuttuja erityislainoja eli ruotsistasuomen kieliasuun mukautettuja lainasanoja. Sanojen aihepiirit kuvastavat etupäässä kielenkäyttäjien arkeen liittyviä teemoja. Ruotsissa asuvien suomen puhujien keskuudessa toteutettu kyselytutkimus osoittaa, että ruotsinsuomen sanoja käytetään eniten puheessa mutta melko paljon myös vapaamuotoisessa kirjoituksessa. Nuoremmat ikäryhmät käyttävät tämäntyyppisiä sanoja vanhempia ikäryhmiä enemmän ja myös suhtautuvat niiden käyttöön myönteisemmin. / Nya sverigefinska ord skapas i huvudsak på två olika sätt. De flesta av de nya orden bildas iinformella diskussionssituationer, men ord och termer skapas också medvetet när Institutet förspråk och folkminnen ger rekommendationer om till exempel översättning av svenska myndigheters namn till finska. Syftet med denna studie är att ta reda på vilken typ av finska ordsom inte ingår i standardfinska som används i Sverige, vilka som använder dessa ord samt vilka attityder som förknippas med användningen av sådana ord. För den sverigefinska minoriteten är det viktigt att deras språk studeras. På så sätt kan man öka kunskapen om minoriteten, få fram forskningsbaserad information om det språk minoriteten använder samt stärka dess sverigefinska identitet. Det empiriska materialet i undersökningen utgörs dels av de föreslagna orden i omröstningarna Årets sverigefinska ord som Sveriges Radios finskspråkiga redaktion har arrangerat under åren 2016–2023, och dels av en webbenkät som kartlägger användningen av sverigefinska ord samt attityder förknippade med användningen av dessa. Jag har kategoriserat de i omröstningarna föreslagna orden efter typ av lånord, ordklass och ämnesområde. I enkätundersökningen har jag analyserat både kvantitativa uppgifter och de fritt formulerade motiveringarna som kompletterar svaren. Undersökningen av de sverigefinska orden som förekommer i omröstningarna Årets sverigefinska ord visar att de flesta orden är så kallade främmande ord, det vill säga lånord från svenska till finska som är anpassade till finskans ortografi. Ordens ämnesområden speglar främst språkbrukarnas vardag. Enkätundersökningen bland talare av finska i Sverige visar att sverigefinska ord används mest i tal men relativt mycket även i informella texter. Yngre åldersgrupper använder denna typ av ord mer än äldre åldersgrupper och förhåller sig också mer positiva till användningen av dem. / Sweden Finnish vocabulary is developed mainly in two ways. Most of the new vocabulary is created in situations of informal communication, but vocabulary is also consciously created when Language Advisors of Finnish at the Institute for Language and Folklore make recommendations on, for example, translation of names of Swedish authorities into Finnish. The purpose of this study is to examine what types of Finnish words deviating from the Finnish standard language that are used in Sweden, who uses them, and what kind of attitudes are involved in the use of such vocabulary. For the Sweden Finnish minority, it is important that their language is studied, as this will contribute to a wider knowledge of the minority, further research-based knowledge about the language they use, and strengthen their Sweden Finnish identity. The empirical material used for the study is, on the one hand, the words proposed in the Sweden Finnish Word of the Year votes organised by the Swedish Radio in 2016 to 2023, and, on the other hand, an on-line survey on the use of Sweden Finnish words and attitudes related to these. I have analysed the words proposed in the votes by type of loan word, word class and subject matter. For the survey, I have analysed both the quantitative data and the respondents’ arguments supporting their answers. The study of the words proposed in the Sweden Finnish Word of the Year votes indicates that most of the words are so-called special loans, i.e. loan words adapted to the Finnish language structure. The topics of the words mainly reflect the everyday life of language users. A survey among Finnish speakers living in Sweden shows that Sweden Finnish words are used mostly in speech but quite often also in informal writing. Younger speakers use these types of words more than older speakers and also show more positive attitudes towards the use of these words.

<p>A great deal of the research on cross-linguistic phonetic influence demonstrates that a speaker’s knowledge of their first language (L1) significantly affects their ability to perceive and produce sounds in any other language. While current studies show that cross-linguistic transfer occurs at the L3 level, some research suggests that properties of both L1 and L2 are present in the production of L3 (Ionin, Montrul & Santos, 2011). Many studies have addressed perception, production and factors that influence foreign speech in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) (Watkins, Rauber & Baptista, 2009). As the number of multilingual individuals rises, so does the need for studies that investigate not only SLA but also that of additional languages (i.e., Third Language Acquisition). This dissertation examines how cross-linguistic influence (CLI) occurs among English, Spanish, and Brazilian Portuguese (BP), examining instances of vowel reduction, an aspect of phonological production. English and BP are assumed as vowel reducing languages, whereas Spanish displays negligible vowel reduction in comparison. The vowel productions in L3 BP of two multilingual groups, L1English-L2Spanish-L3BP (ESP) and L1 Spanish-L2 English-BP (SEP) were investigated in two tasks: a paragraph reading task (PRT) and a carrier phrase task (CPT). The study sought to determine whether i) a native speaker of a vowel reducing L1 and a non-vowel reducing L2 displays more or less vowel reduction in a vowel reducing L3 than a native speaker of a non-vowel reducing L1 and vowel reducing L2 and ii) how length of exposure to an L3 affects phonological production. Three fixed effects were considered: duration ratio, intensity ratio and height (F1). The goal was to ascertain whether the Typological Primacy Model (TPM) (Rothman 2011, 2015) or the L2 Status Factor Model (Bardel & Falk 2007, 2012; Hammarberg, 2001) would be a better predictor for how vowel reduction would occur in the L3. Results for duration ratio and vowel height showed no significant difference between groups ESP and SEP. Results for intensity ratio suggest L2 Status as a better predictor, as group SEP displayed more phonological transfer than the ESP group. A hybrid approach to L3 acquisition models is proposed. </p>

Cette thèse porte sur l’influence interlinguistique au cours du processus d’acquisition de l’espagnol comme langue tierce (L3) chez des enfants bilingues français/basque. Plus précisément, nous nous intéressons à l’accord en genre dans le syntagme déterminant et à la formation de composés nominaux (N+N et déverbaux). Le français et l’espagnol partagent les mêmes caractéristiques concernant les deux phénomènes puisqu’ils possèdent chacun deux genres grammaticaux (masculin et féminin) et qu’ils forment leurs composés avec la tête à gauche. Par contre, en basque, il n’y a pas de genre grammatical et les composés se forment avec la tête à droite. Cette configuration des langues, ainsi que les différents profils de nos participants, nous permettent d’explorer l’influence interlinguistique dès les étapes initiales d’acquisition de l’espagnol L3 à travers l’étude des facteurs les plus courants dans le domaine de l’acquisition de L3, tels que la typologie, l’usage et l’ordre d’acquisition des deux premières langues. Dans l’ensemble, une influence du français (typologiquement et structurellement plus proche de l’espagnol) pourrait avoir un effet facilitateur, tandis que le basque aurait un effet inhibiteur. Pour explorer ces possibilités d’influence, nous avons administré un test de description d’image écrite pour obtenir 1) des syntagmes formés par un déterminant, un nom et un adjectif de couleur (par exemple, « la casa roja », c’est-à-dire, « la maison rouge »); 2) des composés N+N (par exemple, « hombre rana », c’est-à-dire, « homme-grenouille »); et 3) des déverbaux (par exemple, « abrebotellas », c’est-à-dire, « ouvre-bouteille ») à 52 enfants bilingues (français/basque, âge : 10-11 ans) qui apprenaient l’espagnol comme L3 et à un groupe témoin de 21 locuteurs natifs d’espagnol du même âge. Les participants de L3 ont été divisés en trois groupes, selon leur langue dominante : L1 basque, L1 français et 2L1 basque/français. À partir des données collectées, nous avons analysé le niveau de maitrise des structures cibles en fonction des facteurs les plus couramment étudiés en acquisition de L2. Concernant le genre grammatical, nous considérons le genre par défaut, le type d’accord (déterminant ou adjectif), la transparence de la terminaison (-a / -o) et le critère analogique. En ce qui a trait aux composés, nous nous intéressons à la directionnalité (tête initiale ou finale) et la productivité des deux types de composés. Plus spécifiquement pour les composés déverbaux, nous étudions également leurs caractéristiques formelles (flexion verbale et -s générique). Conformément aux résultats de recherches antérieures sur le genre grammatical en espagnol, le taux d’erreur le plus élevé se produit avec le féminin, ce qui indique une stratégie consistant à utiliser le masculin comme genre par défaut. Nous avons également constaté que l’effet de la transparence de la terminaison était plus important chez les locuteurs ayant le basque comme langue dominante, qui ont acquis le français dans un contexte formel et qui ne l’utilisent pas quotidiennement à la maison. En revanche, le critère analogique semble avoir un impact plus important sur les locuteurs qui ont acquis le français à la maison et qui l’utilisent quotidiennement. Concernant les composés, compte tenu des pourcentages élevés de composés avec la bonne directionnalité, nos résultats suggèrent un effet facilitateur du français pour tous les participants, quel que soit l’âge ou l’ordre d’acquisition de leur L1/L2. En général, le français, la langue la plus proche, semble exercer une influence plus directe sur le processus d’acquisition de l’espagnol L3, mais le basque semble avoir une certaine influence sur les stratégies métalinguistiques mobilisées par nos participants. / This study focuses on the issue of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) throughout the acquisition process of Spanish as an L3 by bilingual French/Basque children. Specifically, we are interested in gender concord within the Determiner Phrase (DP) and the formation of nominal compounds (N + N and deverbals). French and Spanish share the same characteristics regarding the two phenomena, as they display two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine), and compounds are head-initial. Conversely, there is no grammatical gender in Basque and compounds are head-final. This configuration of languages, together with the different profiles of our bilingual participants, allows us to explore cross-linguistic influence from the initial stages of acquisition of L3 Spanish through the most common factors in the field of L3 acquisition, namely typology, use and order of acquisition of the first two languages. Overall, an influence of French (typologically and structurally closer) would have a facilitating effect, while Basque would have an inhibitory one. In order to explore these possibilities of influence, we administered a written image description task to elicit 1) phrases made up of a determinant, a noun and a color adjective (e.g., “una casa roja”, “a red house”), 2) N + N compounds (e.g., “hombre rana”, “frogman”) and 3) deverbal compounds (e.g., “abrebotellas”, “bottle opener”) to 52 bilingual children (French/Basque, age: 10–11 years) learning Spanish as an L3, and to a control group of 21 native speakers of Spanish of the same age. The L3 participants were divided into three groups, based on their dominant language: L1 Basque, L1 French, and 2L1 Basque/French. From the data collected, we analyzed the level of accuracy for the target structures in relation to the most commonly studied factors in L2 acquisition. Regarding grammatical gender, we considered the transparency of the ending (-a/-o), the default gender and the analogical criterion. Concerning the compounds, we studied directionality (head-initial vs. head-final) and the productivity of both types of compound. As for the deverbals, we also studied their formal characteristics (verbal inflection and generic -s). In line with the results of previous research on Spanish grammatical gender, the highest error rates occur with feminine, which points to a strategy of using masculine as the default gender. We also found that the effect of the transparency of the ending was greater with Basque-dominant speakers, who acquired French later in a formal context and do not use it at home on a daily basis. In contrast, the analogical criterion seems to be favoured by speakers who acquired French at home and use it every day. As for the compounds, given the high percentages of compounds with the correct directionality, our results suggest a facilitating effect of French for all participants, regardless of age or order of acquisition of their L1/L2. In general, French, the closer language, seems to exert a more direct influence on the process of acquisition of L3 Spanish, but Basque seems to have some influence in terms of the metalinguistic strategies used by our participants. / La presente investigación se centra en la influencia interlingüística a lo largo del proceso de adquisición del español como L3 por parte de niños bilingües francés/euskera. Concretamente, nos interesamos por la concordancia de género dentro del sintagma determinante y la formación de compuestos nominales (N+N y deverbales). El francés y el español comparten las mismas características en cuanto a los dos fenómenos, al tener dos géneros gramaticales (masculino y femenino) y formar sus compuestos con el núcleo a la izquierda. En cambio, en euskera no hay género gramatical y los compuestos se forman con el núcleo a la derecha. Esta configuración de lenguas, junto con los diferentes perfiles de nuestros participantes bilingües, nos permiten explorar la influencia interlingüística desde las etapas iniciales de adquisición del español L3 a través de los factores más comunes en el campo de la adquisición de L3, como la tipología, el uso y el orden de adquisición de las dos primeras lenguas. De manera global, una influencia del francés (tipológica y estructuralmente más cercana y también la L2 de algunos participantes) podría tener un efecto facilitador, mientras que el euskera tendría un efecto inhibidor. Para explorar esas posibilidades de influencia, administramos una prueba escrita de descripción de imágenes para elicitar 1) sintagmas formados por un determinante, un sustantivo y un adjetivo de color (p. ej., “la casa roja”), 2) compuestos N+N (p. ej., “hombre rana”) y 3) deverbales (p. ej., “abrebotellas”) a 52 niños bilingües (francés-euskera, edad: 10-11 años) que aprendían español como L3 y a un grupo de control de 21 hablantes nativos de español de la misma edad. Los participantes de L3 fueron divididos en tres grupos, según su lengua dominante: L1 euskera, L1 francés, y 2L1 euskera/francés. A partir de los datos recogidos, analizamos el nivel de dominio de las estructuras metas en función de los factores más comúnmente estudiados en adquisición de L2. En cuanto al género gramatical, consideramos el género por defecto, el tipo de concordancia, la transparencia de la terminación (-a/-o) y el criterio analógico. Con respecto a los compuestos, estudiamos la direccionalidad (núcleo inicial vs. final) y la productividad de ambos tipos de compuesto. En cuanto los deverbales, estudiamos además sus características formales (flexión verbal y -s genérica). En línea con los resultados de investigaciones anteriores sobre el género gramatical en español, la tasa de error más alta ocurre con el femenino, lo cual apunta a una estrategia de uso del masculino como género por defecto. También encontramos que el efecto de la transparencia de la terminación era mayor con los hablantes que adquirieron el francés en un contexto formal y que no lo usan en casa de manera cotidiana. En cambio, el criterio analógico parece tener un impacto mayor en los hablantes que adquirieron el francés en casa y que lo usan todos los días. En cuanto a los compuestos, dados los altos porcentajes de producción de compuestos con la direccionalidad correcta, nuestros resultados sugieren un efecto facilitador del francés para todos los participantes, independientemente de la edad o del orden de adquisición de sus L1/L2. De manera general, el francés, la lengua más cercana, parece ejercer una influencia más directa en el proceso de adquisición del español L3, pero el euskera parece tener cierta influencia en las estrategias metalingüísticas movilizadas por nuestros participantes. / Tesi hau frantses / euskaldun elebidunek gaztelania hirugarren hizkuntza gisa (H3) ikasterakoan gertazen den hizkuntza arteko eraginari buruzkoa da. Zehazkiago, generoarekiko komunztadura aztertzen dugu determinatzaile sintagman eta hitz elkartuetan (izen + izen eta aditz elkartuak). Frantsesak eta gaztelaniak ezaugarri berdinak dituzte bi fenomenoei dagokienez, bakoitzak bi genero gramatikal (maskulinoa eta femeninoa) baitituzte eta hitz elkartuek burua ezkerrean dute. Bestalde, euskaraz ez dago genero gramatikalik eta hitz elkartuek burua eskuinean dute. Hizkuntzen konfigurazio honek, baita gure parte-hartzaileen profil desberdinak ere, gaztelania H3 gisa jabetzerakoan hizkuntza arteko eragina aztertzeko aukera ematen digu, hasierako urratsetatik, H3 jabekuntza arloko faktore ohikoenen azterketaren bidez (hala nola hizkuntzen tipologia, erabilera eta eskuratze hurrenkera). Orokorrean, frantsesaren eraginak (tipologikoki eta egituraz gaztelaniatik hurbilago) eragin errazgarria izan dezake, eta euskarak, berriz, eragin inhibitzailea. Eragin posible hauek aztertzeko, idatzizko irudi deskribapenaren proba pasatu dugu, 1) izen bat eta kolore adjektibo batez osatutako sintagmak (adibidez, "la casa roja", hau da: "etxe gorria"); 2) izen + izen hitz elkartuak (adibidez, "hombre rana", hau da: "igel gizona"); eta 3) aditzez osatutako hitz elkartuak (adibidez, "abrebotellas", hau da, "botila irekitzekoa"). Gaztelania H3 gisa ikasten ari ziren 52 haur elebidunek (adina: 10-11 urte, frantsesa / euskara elebidun) eta gaztelania ama hizkuntza duten adin bereko 21 haur kontrolen talde batek parte hartu dute. Gaztelania H3ko partaideak hiru taldetan banatuak izan ziren, hizkuntza nagusiaren arabera: euskara H1, frantsesa H1 eta 2H1 euskara / frantsesa. Bildutako datuen oinarrian, xede-egituren ezagutza maila aztertu dugu bigarren hizkuntzaren jabekuntzan aztertu ohi diren faktoreen arabera. Genero gramatikalari dagokionez, genero defektiboa, komunztadura mota (determinatzailea edo adjektiboa), bukaeraren gardentasuna (-a / -o) eta irizpide analogikoa kontuan hartzen ditugu. Hitz elkartuei dagokienez, bi hitz elkarte moten norabidea (hasierako edo amaierako burua) eta produktibitatea interesatzen zaizkigu. Bereziki aditz elkartuentzat, haien ezaugarri formalak ere aztertzen ditugu (inflexioa eta -s generikoak). Gaztelaniaz genero gramatikalari buruz egindako aurreko ikerketekin bat eginez, huts kopuru handiena femeninoarekin gertatzen da, maskulinoa genero defektibo gisa erabiltzeko estrategia erakutsiz. Gainera, ikusi da amaieraren gardentasunaren eragina handiagoa zela euskara hizkuntza nagusi zuten eta frantsesa testuinguru formalean eskuratu eta etxean egunero erabiltzen ez duten hiztunengan. Aldiz, badirudi irizpide analogikoak eragin handiagoa duela etxean frantsesa ikasi duten eta egunero erabiltzen duten hiztunengan. Hitz elkartuei dagokienez, norabide zuzena duten hitz elkartuen ehuneko altuak direla eta, gure emaitzek frantsesaren eragin errazgarria erakusten dute parte-hartzaile guztientzat, H1 / H2 jabetze adina edo hurrenkera edozein dela ere. Orokorrean, frantsesak, hizkuntza hurbilena, gaztelania H3 jabetzeko prozesuan eragin zuzenagoa duela dirudi, baina badirudi euskarak nolabaiteko eragina duela gure parte hartzaileek mobilizatutako estrategia metalinguistikoetan.