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Le cytosquelette représente un élément crucial dans les processus cellulaires essentiels des cellules lymphoïdes. Les différents filaments du cytosquelette et leurs modes de régulation représentent donc des cibles thérapeutiques majeures pour le développement de nouveaux composés pharmacologiques. Au cours de ce travail de thèse, nous avons mis au point une nouvelle méthode d’analyse par cytométrie en flux (CytoFRET) permettant de visualiser simultanément la dynamique de polymérisation des filaments d’actine, des microtubules et des filaments intermédiaires de vimentine dans la lignée leucémique T Jurkat. Cette méthode a été utilisée pour le criblage d’une mini-chimiothèque composée d’inhibiteurs d’enzymes impliquées dans les modifications post-traductionnelles des protéines. Nous avons ainsi identifié deux composés, le WP1130 et le b-AP15, des inhibiteurs d’enzymes de déubiquitination (DUBs), comme puissants inducteurs de la polymérisation/nucléation de l’actine. Nous avons montré que l’effet de ces inhibiteurs sur les microfilaments d’actine est consécutif à une poly-ubiquitination de la Destrine, une protéine de liaison à l’actine. Nous avons également identifié des inhibiteurs des déacétylases HDAC6 et SIRT2 comme inducteurs de la polymérisation des microtubules et de l’assemblage de la vimentine. L’effet de ces inhibiteurs a été corrélé à une acétylation directe de la tubuline mais pas de la vimentine. Ces résultats ouvrent ainsi de nouvelles perspectives à la fois fondamentale et thérapeutique sur la physiopathologie du cytosquelette des cellules lymphoïdes. / Actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments compose three major cytoskeletal structures of vertebrate cells that are characterized by highly dynamic balances between assembly and de-assembly, underlying critical cellular processes such as mitosis, architecture and movement. Consequently, cytoskeleton dysfunctions have been implicated in several pathological situations including cell transformation and metastasis. Thus, cytoskeletal networks represent major targets for the development of novel anti-cancer and anti-metastatic therapies. However, drug development is currently limited by the availability of high-throughput screening systems allowing the simultaneous monitoring of actin, microtubules and intermediate filaments dynamics in living cells. In this work, we have developed a novel screening assay of cytoskeleton dynamics based on the simultaneous recording by flow cytometry of FRET signals produced by the variation of actin, tubulin and vimentin filaments dynamics in living cells. Our novel method was employed to screen a mini-library of drugs known for their ability to interfere with post-translationnal modifications of proteins. Interestingly, our approach revealed that compounds interfering with lysine acetylation have a dramatic impact on vimentin filaments assembly and microtubules polymerization. In addition, two inhibitors (WP1130 and b-AP15) of deubiquitinating enzymes showed increase of actin polymerization. This effect was attributed to poly-ubiquitnation of Destrin, an actin binding protein. In conclusion, our FRET multiplex flow cytometry assay represents a novel effective method for the future development of new anti-cancer therapies.

Understanding how the cellular cytoskeleton is maintained and regulated is important to elucidate the functions of many structures such as the mitotic spindle, cilia and flagella. Katanin p60, microtubule-severing enzymes from the ATPase associated with cellular activities (AAA+) family, has previously been shown in our lab to be inhibited by free tubulin as well as α- and β-tubulin carboxy-terminal tail (CTT) constructs. Here we investigate the inhibition ability of several different tubulin CTT sequences. We quantify the effect of the addition of these constructs on the severing and binding activity of katanin. We find that some constructs inhibit katanin better than others and two constructs that appear to enhance katanin activity. Our findings add nuance to our previous findings that consensus α-tubulin tails are less inhibitory of katanin than consensus β-tubulin [3]. Surprisingly, we find that a polyglutamate sequence activates katanin while it has previously been shown to inhibit spastin, a different microtubule-severing enzyme associated with the neuromuscular disease Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia [23]. These results highlight that different CTT sequences can control the activity of severing enzymes and ultimately affect the cytoskeletal network organization in a cell type and location-dependent manner.

Le phéochromocytome (PCC) est une tumeur neuroendocrine rare qui se développe principalement aux dépens des cellules chromaffines de la médullo-surrénale. Dans la majorité des cas, les PCCs sont caractérisés par une hypersécrétion de catécholamines responsables de divers effets délétères chez les patients dont le principal est une hypertension (phéochromocytomes symptomatiques, PS). Cependant, il existe également une forme particulière de PCCs asymptomatiques qui sécrètent des taux physiologiques de catécholamines (phéochromocytomes incidentaux, PI). Parmi les patients porteurs de PI, certains sont hypertendus (PIH) et d’autres non (PIN). Afin de mieux caractériser les différents profils sécrétoires de PCCs (PS et PI), nous avons recherché une implication potentielle des microARNs (miRNAs). Nous avons réalisé une analyse transcriptionnelle des miRNAs exprimés dans 32 échantillons de PCCs (12 PS, 12 PIN et 8 PIH). Le miRNome a été réalisé par qRT-PCR microfluidique (Taqman Low Density Array, TLDA) pour 671 miRNAs. L’analyse statistique (Limma) des données d’expression a permis d’identifier 4 miRNAs significativement sur-exprimés (hsa-miR-7-1-3p, 7-2-3p, 26a-1-3p et 550a-3p) et 3 miRNAs sous-exprimés (497-3p, 32-5p, 190b-5p) dans les tumeurs PIN par rapport aux PS. Pour identifier les cibles potentielles des miRNAs, de nombreux logiciels de prédictions bioinformatiques sont disponibles en ligne mais les résultats qu’ils génèrent sont très divergents. Afin de contourner ce problème nous avons développé miRabel, un nouvel outil de prédiction des cibles potentielles des miRNAs et des fonctions biologiques qui leurs sont associées. Le principe général consiste à agréger les résultats de 3 autres algorithmes de prédiction sélectionnés pour leur complémentarité. Au final, les analyses des courbes ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic), de la précision et du Recall ont montré que cet outil est plus efficace i) que les algorithmes qu’il agrège et ii) que d’autres logiciels de prédictions couramment utilisés tels que miRWalk, MBSTAR et TargetScan. Une analyse d'enrichissement (Modular Enrichment Analysis ou MEA, Genecodis3) des cibles prédites pour les miRNAs différentiellement exprimés a révélé qu’ils peuvent moduler significativement l’activité de quelques dizaines de voies de signalisation dont celles du cytosquelette d’actine et des SNAREs (impliquées dans le transport vésiculaire). En se basant sur l’expression des miRNAs, leurs énergies d’hybridation avec leurs cibles ainsi que leurs effets physiologiques potentiels, les ARNm des gènes PAK3, MLCP, MLCK (cytosquelette d’actine), SNAP25 et STX1A (SNAREs) ont été retenus pour la suite de l’étude. Les essais luciférases ont mis en évidence une interaction entre la totalité de l’extrémité 3’UTR des ARNm de MLCK et miR-32, STX1A et miR-550a-3p, SNAP25 et miR-7-1-3p ainsi que miR-550a-3p. Les autres interactions testées se sont révélées négatives. Les analyses par RT-qPCR ont montré une diminution significative du niveau d’ARNm de MLCK et de STX1A suite à la transfection de miR-32-5p et miR-550a-3p respectivement. Concernant SNAP25, un effet inhibiteur de miR-550a-3p / 7-1-3p est observé. Cet effet a été confirmé au niveau protéique pour STX1A et SNAP25. / Pheochromocytomas (PCC) are rare neuroendocrine tumors which arise from chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. In most cases, PCCs are characterized by a hypersecretion of catecholamines, which is responsible for most of deleterious effects in the patients with hypertension being the main symptom (symptomatic pheochromocytomas, SP). However, some PCCs are asymptomatic and secrete physiological levels of catecholamines (Incidental Pheochromocytomas, IP). Among patients with an IP, some are hypertensive (HIP) and other are strictly normotensive (NIP). In order to better understand the different secretory profiles of PCCs (SP and IP), we investigated the potential role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in this process. We started by identifying differentially expressed miRNAs between 12 SP, 12 NIP and 8 SP. The miRNome was done by microfluidic qRT-PCR (Taqman Low Density Array, TLDA) for 671 miRNAs. Statistical analysis (Limma) of the expression results identified 4 miRNAs significantly over-expressed (hsa-miR-7-1-3p, 7-2-3p, 26a-1-3p et 550a-3p) and 3 under-expressed (497-3p, 32-5p, 190b-5p) in NIP tumors when compared to SP. To identify potential miRNAs’ targets, numerous bioinformatic prediction methods are available but their results are quite divergent. To circumvent this issue, we developed miRabel, a new miRNAs’ targets prediction tool and their associated biological functions. MiRabel aggregated the results of 3 other prediction algorithms selected for their features complementarity. The analysis of ROC, precision and recall curves showed that this tool is more efficient i) than the aggregated prediction methods and ii) than other recent or widely used tools such as miRWalk, MBSTAR and TargetScan. A Modular Enrichment Analysis (MEA, Genecodis3) of the miRNAs’ predicted targets revealed that they could potentially regulate the activity of a few pathways of which the actin cytoskeleton and the SNAREs (involved in vesicular transport). PAK3, MLCP, MLCK (Actin cytoskeleton), SNAP25 and STX1A (SNAREs) were selected to be experimentally validated based on miRNA’s expression, hybridization energy and potential physiological impact. Experimental validations of the selected interactions are achieved by luciferase gene reporter, RT-qPCR assays and western-blots following the transfection of studied miRNAs. Luciferase assays showed a direct interaction between the whole 3’UTR of MLCK mRNA and miR-32-5p, STX1A and miR-550a-3p, SNAP25 and miR-7-1-3p as well as miR-550a-3p. The other tested interactions came out to be negative. A significant decrease of MLCK mRNA and STX1A were observed by RT-qPCR analysis after transfecting miR-32-5p and miR-550a-3p respectively. As for SNAP25, the inhibitory effect of miR550a-3p/7-1-3p could be observed. This effect was confirmed at the protein level by western-blots for STX1A and SNAP25. We then evaluated the physiological effect of miR-550a-3p/7-1-3p on the regulated secretion of PC12 rat PCC cells. This was achieved using a nano-luciferase fused to growth hormone 1 (GH1). Once stimulated (59 mM potassium and 2 mM barium), miR-550a-3p over-expression decreased the secretory capacity of PC12 cells while miR-7-1-3p could not. This project represents the first study aiming to understand the regulation of the catecholamine secretion pathway by miRNAs in the pathophysiological context of PCC patients. Eventually, the characterization of this miRNA’s network should improve patient care in the field of hypersecreting neuroendocrine tumors.

Les microtubules sont des filaments protéiques dynamiques, essentiels au bon fonctionnement de la plupart des cellules eucaryotes. L’organisation de ce réseau de fibres constitue un enjeu majeur pour la cellule, puisque c’est de cette organisation que découle une grande partie de ses fonctions. Dans les cellules animales, la protéine EB1 (End Binding-1) est impliquée dans la polarisation du réseau de microtubules. Arabidopsis thaliana possède trois gènes orthologues bien conservés, mais dont les fonctions sont encore mal connues, alors même que l’orientation et l’organisation du réseau de microtubule sont critiques pour le développement des plantes. En particulier, dans les cellules en élongation, le réseau cortical de microtubules est perpendiculaire à l’axe de croissance et permet, en participant à la synthèse de la paroi, de restreindre la croissance en épaisseur au profit d’un allongement. Les microtubules corticaux ne sont pas isolés les uns des autres, ils s’associent latéralement pour former des faisceaux, ajoutant ainsi un niveau de complexité, et donc de régulation, à l’architecture du réseau microtubulaire chez Arabidopsis thaliana. La formation et la maintenance du réseau de faisceaux parallèles de microtubules constituent l’objet principal de ce travail de thèse. Chez Arabidopsis thaliana, EB1 est impliquée, à l’échelle macroscopique, dans la croissance directionnelle des racines. Toutefois, les fonctions subcellulaires de la protéine étaient peu connues au début de nos investigations. Tout d’abord, notre étude a permis de montrer que le réseau cortical de microtubules est désorganisé chez des plantes mutantes dépourvues de protéine EB1 cytoplasmique. De plus, la combinaison de la microscopie super-résolue STED et d’une procédure d’analyse d’image que nous avons élaborée au laboratoire, a mis en évidence une diminution significative du nombre de microtubules par faisceau en absence de EB1. Nous avons également observé une hypersensibilité des racines mutantes à la dureté du milieu, confirmant des données publiées précédemment. Pris dans leur ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent : (1) l’importance de l’organisation du réseau cortical de microtubules dans la réponse de la racine au toucher ; (2) une probable interdépendance entre organisation du réseau et formation des faisceaux. Ensuite, afin de confirmer le probable lien fonctionnel entre la formation des faisceaux de microtubules et organisation globale du réseau microtubulaire cortical, nous avons étudié des plantes mutantes pour MAP65-1, une protéine déjà décrite pour sa capacité à former des faisceaux in vitro. Nos premiers résultats, tendent à confirmer cette fonction de MAP65-1 in vivo et révèle, pour la première fois, une implication significative de cette protéine dans l’arrangement parallèle des microtubules corticaux. Si ce résultat ne met pas en évidence la relation de cause à effet qui relie ces deux phénomènes, il confirme toutefois l’existence d’un lien entre les deux niveaux de régulation. Enfin, dans le but de mieux comprendre les mécanismes permettant aux protéines EB1 et MAP65-1 de former des faisceaux de microtubules, nous avons entamé une analyse de leurs propriétés intrinsèques in vitro, en système purifié. Les premiers résultats, très préliminaires, indique un effet stimulateur de EB1 sur la capacité de MAP65-1 à former des faisceaux de microtubules. Cette thèse a contribué à la compréhension des mécanismes qui régissent l’organisation du réseau de microtubules corticaux chez Arabidopsis thaliana, incluant la formation des faisceaux de microtubules et le rôle joué par EB1 et MAP65-1 dans ce contexte. Elle confirme également l’implication du réseau de microtubules dans le contrôle de la croissance racinaire et suggère fortement sa participation à la réponse aux contraintes mécaniques. / Microtubules are essential dynamic filaments of most eukaryotic cells. Microtubule network organization is tightly controlled within cells since most of microtubule functions come from their spatial arrangement. In animal cells, EB1 (End Binding-1 protein) is well known as a major regulator of microtubule network polarization. Though well conserved throughout evolution, Arabidopsis thaliana possesses three EB1 orthologous genes with unclear functions, while microtubule network orientation and organization are critical for plant development. During plant cell expansion, cortical microtubules are organized as parallel fibers that are perpendicular to the elongation axis. This particular organization is thought to promote cell elongation rather than thickening by controlling cell wall synthesis. Cortical microtubule are not isolated from each other, they are laterally associated within bundles, bringing an additional level of complexity, and therefore of regulation, to the microtubule network in plants. Microtubule bundles formation and maintenance are the main interest of this PhD-thesis work. In plants, EB1 proteins had already been involved in directional root growth, but their subcellular functions remained unclear. Our study revealed first that the cortical microtubule network is disorganized in plants lacking cytoplasmic-EB1 protein. Moreover, using super-resolution microscopy combined with an original image processing, we showed that the average number of microtubules per bundle is significantly reduced in the absence of EB1. In addition, EB1-defective roots display a hypersensitivity to medium hardness as mentioned elsewhere before. Altogether, our data suggest: (1) an involvement of the microtubule network in root response to touch; (2) a possible relationship between microtubule-network organization and bundle formation. Then, in order to confirm the functional link between bundle formation and network organization, we tackle the study of MAP65-1 mutant plants. MAP65-1 is a protein well described for its ability to make microtubule bundles in vitro. Our investigations confirmed this function for MAP65-1 in vivo and reveal its involvement in cortical microtubule network organization. Although this result does not reveal any causal connection between both phenomena, it highlights the link between the two levels of complexity that are bundle formation and spatial arrangement of microtubules. Finally, to get insight into the molecular mechanisms allowing EB1 and MAP65-1 to make microtubule bundles, we developed in vitro experiments using purified components. Preliminary results indicate that EB1 stimulates MAP65-1 ability to make bundles, but this remains to be further investigated. Hence, this thesis work contributed to decipher the mechanisms governing microtubule network organization in Arabidopsis thaliana. In particular, it revealed the involvement of EB1 proteins and MAP65-1 in this task. This work further confirmed the role of microtubules in root growth and strongly suggested their involvement in the response to mechanical sensing.

Le modèle cellulaire de magnétostimulation (MTS) développé dans l'équipe a permis d'obtenir des résultats préliminaires sur les essais de perméabilité endothéliale ainsi que sur les reconstructions et modélisation des fibres d'actine. Les premiers résultats en Magnétocytométrie (MTC) montrent une augmentation de rigidité cellulaire suite à une stimulation mécanique du tapis cellulaire. Les images confocales ont permis de mettre en évidence une restructuration des filaments d'actine dans les cellules endothéliales microvasculaires pulmonaires (HPMEC) soumises au stress mécanique, ainsi qu'une relocalisation des VE-Cadhérines nécessaires aux jonctions intercellulaires. Ces deux résultats concordent avec l'apparition de 'gaps' ou trous inter cellulaires qui permettent d'expliquer l'augmentation de perméabilité mesurée entre les cellules soumises au stress mécanique et la situation contrôle. Des difficultés techniques retardent le travail et l'obtention de résultats en nombre important. Par exemple l'emploi de certaines techniques de marquages difficilement compatibles avec certains supports de culture. Cela empêche dans certains cas la confirmation visuelle de résultats obtenus par MTC. La viabilité cellulaire lors des expérimentation ne permet pas d’allonger les temps d’étude d’une même population cellulaire, ce qui limite certains résultats. Les premiers résultats sont à compéter par une étude plus approfondie des niveaux d'expression de facteurs pro-inflammatoires ainsi que des voies de signalisation et de régulation des VE-Cadhérines et des intégrines AlphaV-Beta3. L’effet de différentes molécules utilisées en clinique devrait être étudié sur le modèle de stress mécanique. / The cellular model of magnétostimulation ( MTS) developed in the team allowed to obtain preliminary results(profits) on the tries(essays) of endothéliale permeability as well as on the reconstructions and the modelling of the fibers of actine. The first results(profits) in Magnétocytométrie ( MTC) show an increase of cellular rigidity further to a mechanical stimulation of the cellular carpet(mat). The confocal images allowed to highlight a restructuring of the strands of actine in cells(units) microvascular lung endothéliales ( HPMEC) subjected(submitted) to the mechanical stress, as well as a relocation of the VE-Cadhérines necessary for the intercellular junctions. These two results(profits) suit to the appearance of ' gaps ' or holes inter cellular which allow to explain the increase.

Les cellules multiciliées (MCC) possèdent à leur surface apicale des centaines de cils mobiles générant un flux directionnel liquidien nécessaire par exemple pour le nettoyage des voies respiratoires. La fabrication de ces cils (multiciliogénèse) requiert une séquence d’évènements cellulaires dont un arrêt du cycle cellulaire, une réorganisation du réseau apical d’actine, une multiplication massive des centrioles suivie de leur migration au pôle apicale et de leur maturation en corps basal, à partir desquels les cils s’allongent.Mon laboratoire d’accueil a mis en évidence le rôle conservé de la famille de microARN miR-34/449 dans le contrôle de la multiciliogénèse en inhibant la voie de signalisation Notch ainsi qu’en induisant un arrêt du cycle. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai mis en évidence un nouveau niveau de régulation de ces microARN par lequel ils contrôlent la réorganisation apicale du cytosquelette d’actine, en modulant l’expression et l’activité de certaines petites GTPases. Par ailleurs, j’ai identifié et caractérisé des séquences variantes des miR-34/449 canoniques, appelées isomiR. Tandis que ces isomiR partagent des fonctions semblables à celles de leurs homologues canoniques, ils apportent également une complémentarité d’action en modulant des transcrits cibles spécifiques. Enfin, le dernier axe de mon travail a permis d’identifier le rôle de la voie de signalisation BMP dans la multiciliogénèse ainsi que d’élucider certains des mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels elle contrôle ce phénomène. L’ensemble de nos découvertes offre une opportunité inédite pour développer des stratégies thérapeutiques dans le traitement de maladies associées à des désordres ciliaires / Vertebrate multiciliated cells (MCC) project hundreds of motile cilia at their apical surface which coordinately beat to generate a directional fluid flow necessary for many biological functions including airway cleansing. Biogenesis of multiple cilia (multiciliogenesis) follows different key cellular steps corresponding to a cell cycle arrest, a massive multiplication of centrioles which then migrate to the apical surface to form basal bodies, from which cilia elongate. In 2011, my host laboratory evidenced that the miR-34/449 family of microRNAs control vertebrate multiciliogenesis by inducing the cell cycle arrest and by repressing the Notch pathway. My thesis work has revealed a new role of miR-34/449 by demonstrating that they modulate expression and activity of small GTPases to drive the apical reorganization of the actin network, a prerequisite for basal body anchoring. Besides, I have identified and characterized variant sequences of canonical miR-34/449 family, named isomiRs. Whereas these isomiRs share common biological functions with canonical miR-34/449 miRNAs, they may also contribute to a complementary effect by targeting specific transcripts. Finally, the last part of my work has contributed to the identification of the conserved role of the BMP pathway in the control of multiciliogenesis. I have evidenced some molecular mechanisms by which the BMP signal controls this phenomenon. Importantly, I demonstrated that BMP inhibition promotes regeneration of tracheal MCC in vivo in an asthmatic mouse model. Overall, our findings offer an unprecedented opportunity to develop novel therapeutic strategies to treat diseases associated with ciliary disorders

On the basis of detailed phenotypic examination of fh1 and fh2 mutants we observed that the main housekeeping Arabidopsis thaliana formin AtFH1 (At3g25500) and its closest relative, AtFH2 (At2g43800) are involved in both actin filaments and microtubule dynamics. fh1 mutants showed increased sensitivity to the actin polymerization inhibitor Latrunculin B (LatB). Formin mutants had cotyledon pavement cells which exhibited more pronounced lobes compared to the wild type, and alterations in vascular tissue patterning were found. The double fh1 fh2 homozygote was not obtained, suggesting that at least one functional formin gene is required for proper gametophyte development. Methods used to observe and quantify both architecture and dynamics of the cortical cytoskeleton from confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and variable angle epifluorescence microscopy (VAEM) were standarized and allowed to find that mutants exhibited more abundant but less dynamic F- actin bundles and more dynamic microtubules than wild type seedlings, fh1 mutant phenotype observed in roots was further aggravated by a (heterozygous) fh2 mutation. The formin inhibitor SMIFH2 mimicked the alterations observed in fh1 mutants in plants, it has been the first report of this inhibitor in plants. Defects in membrane trafficking were...

Microtubule associated molecular motors are involved in a multitude of fundamental cellular processes such as intracellular transport and spindle positioning. During these movements multiple motor proteins often work together and are, therefore, able to exert high forces. Thus force generation and sensing are common mechanisms for controlling motor driven movement. These mechanisms play a pivotal role when motor proteins antagonize each other, e.g. to facilitate oscillations of the spindle or the nucleus. Single motor proteins have been characterized in depth over the last two decades, our understanding of the collective behavior of molecular motors remains, however, poor. Since motor proteins often cooperate while they walk along microtubules, it is necessary to describe their collective reaction to a load quantitatively in order to understand the mechanism of many motor-driven processes. I studied the antagonistic action of many molecular motors (of one kind) in a gliding geometry. For this purpose I crosslinked two microtubules in an antiparallel fashion, so that they formed \"doublets\". Then I observed the gliding motility of these antiparallel doublets and analyzed the gliding velocity with respect to the relative number of motors pulling or pushing against each other. I observed that the antiparallel doublets gliding on conventional kinesin-1 (from Drosophila melanogaster) as well as cytoplasmic dynein (from Saccharomyces cerevisae) exhibited two distinct modes of movement, slow and fast, which were well separated. Furthermore I found a bistability, meaning, that both kinds of movement, slow and fast, occurred at the same ratio of antagonizing motors. Antiparallel doublets gliding on the non-processive motor protein Ncd (the kinesin-14 from D. melanogaster) showed, however, no bistability. The collective dynamics of all three motor proteins were described with a quantitative theory based on single-motor properties. Furthermore the response of multiple dynein motors towards an external, well-defined load was measured in a gliding geometry by magnetic tweezing. Examples of multi-motor force-velocity relationships are presented and discussed. I established, furthermore, a method for counting single surface immobilized motors to guide the evaluation of the tweezing experiments.:1 Introduction to the functions of molecular motors 1 1.1 How molecular motors move 1 1.1.1 Of muscles and molecules 1 1.1.2 Kinesin-1, the working horse of single-molecule research 3 1.1.3 Kinesin-14, an unusual kinesin with a new twist 6 1.1.4 Cytoplasmic dynein, the molecule with many qualities 7 1.2 Structure and function of microtubules 8 1.3 The directionality of molecular motors 9 1.4 Force regulation in cell biology via molecular motors 10 1.4.1 Bidirectional cargo transport 10 1.4.2 Dynein drives intracellular oscillations 13 1.4.3 Control of spindle length 15 2 Introduction to the collective behavior of molecular motors in vitro 19 2.1 Cooperativity of molecular motors 19 2.2 How multiple motors work against a load 21 2.2.1 Theoretical concepts 21 2.2.2 Optical tweezing of multiple motors 22 2.2.3 Alternative experimental approaches 23 2.2.4 Membrane tube dynamics 24 2.3 Antagonizing molecular motors 25 2.3.1 Competition between dissimilar motors 25 2.3.2 Competition between identical motors 26 2.4 Aim of the project 28 3 Characterization of molecular motors 31 3.1 Results: The run length of processive motors 31 3.1.1 Run length of kinesin-1 at different ATP concentrations 31 3.1.2 The run length of cytoplasmic dynein 34 3.2 Results for multi-motor gliding assays 37 3.2.1 The effect of ATP on the gliding motility 37 3.2.2 The effect of temperature on the gliding motility 39 3.2.3 Bead transport does not influence gliding motility 42 3.3 Discussion 43 4 Magnetic tweezing of multiple molecular motors 45 4.1 Concepts of the magnetic tweezing setup 45 4.1.1 Theoretical concepts 45 4.1.2 Implementation 48 4.1.3 Calibration 51 4.2 Results of multi-motor force measurements 53 4.2.1 External force leads to microtubule re-orientation 53 4.2.2 Cytoplasmic dynein is able to withstand high opposing loads 55 4.2.3 Force-velocity curves at very low motor densities 56 4.2.4 Averaging of multi-motor force-velocity relationships 58 4.3 Discussion 60 5 Reconstitution of antagonizing motor activity 63 5.1 The doublet assay 63 5.2 Experimental results of the doublet assay 65 5.2.1 Kinesin-1 driven doublets move in discrete velocity regimes 65 5.2.2 Velocity affects the shape of the bistability curve 68 5.2.3 Dynein\'s processivity allows bistability at low velocity 69 5.2.4 Ncd does not exhibit a bistability curve 70 5.3 Theoretical results of the doublets assay 71 5.3.1 General concepts 71 5.3.2 Theory for processive motors 73 5.3.3 Theory for non-processive motors 75 5.3.4 The emergence of bistability 78 5.3.5 Model for single-motor force-velocity relationships 81 5.4 Comparison between theoretical and experiment results 83 5.5 Discussion 87 6 Materials and Methods 91 6.1 List of chemicals and equipment 91 6.2 Buffer recipes 92 6.3 Protein purification 93 6.4 Preparation of microtubules 95 6.5 Preparation of flow cells 96 6.6 Fluorescence microscopy 98 6.7 Errors computation 100 6.8 Software 100 7 References 103 8 Acknowledgement 113

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of human death worldwide. Currently, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease and health care costs associated with its onset continue to increase in both developed and developing societies. Concordant with the need to improve preventative measures is the imperative to develop more effective and efficient remedies for incident cardiovascular pathologies. Increased aortic stiffness with aging has recently emerged as an early, independent, and consistent physiological predictor of cardiovascular disease and represents an attractive target for possible therapeutic options. The success of any biomedical strategy in this regard is incumbent upon comprehension of biological processes and mechanical properties attributable to constituent components within the aortic wall. This dissertation tested the hypothesis that aging-induced changes to smooth muscle maintenance of biomechanical homeostasis within the aorta lead to undesirable increases in stiffness, correlative with increased risk of negative cardiovascular outcomes. Conventionally, mechanical studies and models have identified extracellular matrix as the primary determinant of changes in stiffness, but new research presented here shows that this may not be true. In viable ex vivo preparations of aortic tissue, roughly half of the maximal elastic modulus results from alpha-agonist activation of smooth muscle cells. Investigation of the biochemical interactions that characterize this effect revealed a link between aging and decreased expression of Src, a kinase involved in numerous signaling pathways governing cellular growth and survival, as well as defective regulation of focal adhesions between the smooth muscle cells and extracellular matrix. These findings were integrated into a model of aortic contractility and stiffness that establishes an aging-impaired regulatory complex comprising focal adhesions and non-muscle actin cytoskeleton in vascular smooth muscle cells. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying this model may motivate the design of potential therapeutics, deliverable to previously overlooked target sites within aortic smooth muscle, and ultimately novel treatments for aging-induced cardiovascular disease. / 2017-10-27T00:00:00Z