O objetivo desta dissertação é demonstrar que a responsabilidade civil aquiliana, no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, tem como pressuposto fundamental a causação de dano injusto. Esse objetivo justifica-se porque existem posições doutrinárias, conhecidas como direito de danos, que defendem a desnecessidade do dano injusto para que seja deflagrada a estrutura de responsabilização civil. Analisam-se, para tanto, a estrutura e a finalidade da responsabilidade civil, bem como o seu enquadramento no sistema jurídico brasileiro. / The aim of this dissertation is to show that the non-contractual civil liability in the Brazilian legal order has as a fundamental presupposition the causation of the unfair damage. This aim is justifiable because there are doctrinaire opinion, known as damage law, that advocate the unnecessariness of the unfair damage to be triggered the structure of civil liability. It analyzes, therefore, the structure and the goal of the civil liability, as well as its fitting into the Brazilian legal system.

This Master´s Thesis studies the applicability of existing numerical model to predict the conditions in the drifts at the mine. Damage mapping, covering the existing production levels, has been carried out to study the condition of the surface support, i.e. shotcrete, mesh and rock bolts to quantify the amount of deformation visible in the tunnels. Irregularities in the floor levels were also mapped. The rock support applied varies between different areas, from only a layer of shotcrete to areas where shotcrete, mesh and cable bolts are applied sequentially. The large amount of support in some regions is required because of high in situ rock stresses in Kemi Mine. The geological conditions are challenging, with large local variation making efficient supporting and damage prediction difficult. Access drifts at the mine have varying service times, on average 6 years, which is a long time in a difficult environment. The results from this work are a mine specific damage classification, used in the mapping to capture the range of damages seen on site. A reoccurrence of same areas showing damages on several production levels is noted. Digitized versions of the damage maps were made and these have been compared to simulation results. The comparisons were made to plots of deviatoric strain, deviatoric stress and total displacement. Based on the work done during this project it can be concluded that the studied parameters have varying levels of agreement with the drifts, both when comparing the levels with each other and the results in the same level between spring and autumn. The best agreement is found with the deviatoric strain increment and the yielded elements. Rock mechanics and geological reasons for the variations seen between the mapping results and the simulations results can be further studied in the future, as can the alternatives for increasing the accuracy through changes in the numerical model or model type used for comparison.

INTRODUÇÃO: O dano muscular induzido pelo exercício (DMIE) em humanos ocorre quando o indivíduo realiza exercícios não-habituais, muito intensos ou de longa duração. Muitos protocolos experimentais têm se dedicado ao estudo do DMIE, porém poucos deles, principalmente aqueles com ações excêntricas, reproduzem uma situação real de treinamento físico. OBJETIVO: O objetivo geral desta pesquisa é verificar e comparar a ocorrência de dano muscular nos flexores do cotovelo induzido pelo sistema de treinamento de cargas descendentes em exercício resistido em duas diferentes intensidades por meio de marcadores indiretos de dano muscular: creatina quinase (CK), mioglobina (Mio), dor e torque muscular. MÉTODO: Foram voluntários 9 indivíduos do gênero masculino com idade média (\'+ OU -\' desvio padrão) de 26,78 \'+ OU -\' 4,32 anos, peso médio 84,02 \'+ OU -\' 13,88 quilos e altura média 181,33 \'+ OU -\' 8,46 centímetros. Os indivíduos realizaram dois protocolos de exercício resistido com ações concêntricas e excêntricas dos flexores do cotovelo nos exercícios rosca Scott e rosca direta com cargas descendentes em diferentes intensidades, uma iniciada em 90% de 1-RM (PROTOCOLO 90%) e outra iniciada em 75% de 1-RM (PROTOCOLO 75%). Os marcadores de dano muscular CK, Mio, dor e torque muscular foram avaliados previamente ao exercício, imediatamente após o exercício, 24, 48, 96 e 168 horas após o exercício. RESULTADOS: O pico de concentração de CK ocorreu 24 horas após a sessão de exercício dos PROTOCOLOS 75% e 90%, sem diferenças significativa entre os valores (p < 0,05). O pico de concentração de Mio ocorreu imediatamente após a sessão de exercício dos PROTOCOLOS 75% e 90%, sem diferenças significativa entre os valores (p < 0,05). O pico de dor ocorreu 24 horas após a sessão de exercício do PROTOCOLO 75% e permaneceu com o mesmo valor 48 horas após, com percepção referente à \"dor um pouco forte\" indicada na escala de Borg e no PROTOCOLO 90% obteve o pico imediatamente após o esforço com percepção referente à \"dor moderada\". A maior diminuição do torque muscular ocorreu imediatamente após a sessão de exercício dos PROTOCOLOS 75% e 90% sem diferenças significativa entre os valores (p < 0,05). CONCLUSÃO: Foi possível sugerir a ocorrência do dano muscular e ambos os protocolos pelas variáveis investigadas. O torque muscular demonstrou ser o melhor marcador do dano muscular por avaliar de forma não-invasiva a funcionalidade e restabelecimento das estruturas do músculo. O PROTOCOLO 90% parece ser mais vantajoso praticamente por demonstrar as mesmas características nas variáveis CK, Mio e torque muscular com menor percepção de dor. Porém, pesquisas com adaptações ao treinamento crônico são necessárias para fortalecer estas afirmações. / INTRODUCTION: Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in humans occurs after unaccustomed or vigorous exercise. Various experimental models was dedicated to EIMD, however few studies, essential those with eccentric action, replicated action that commonly occur during real physical training. PURPOSE: The general purpose of this research was to verify and to compare changes in indirect markers of muscle damage (Creatine Kinase (CK), myoglobin (Myo), pain and muscle torque) on the elbow flexors following training system of drop set in resistance exercise in two different intensities. METHODS: 9 young men (age: 26,78 \'+ OU -\' 4,32 years, height: 181,33 \'+ OU -\' 8,46 cm, body mass: 84,02 \'+ OU -\' 13,88 Kg) performed two exercise protocols of drop set resistance exercise with actions concentric and eccentric of the elbow flexors in Scott arm curl and direct arm curl of 90% (PROTOCOL 90%) and 75% (PROTOCOL 75%) of one maximal repeated. The indirect markers was obtained before, immediately after, and 24, 48, 96 and 168 hours after exercise. RESULTS: The CK\'s concentration peak occurs 24 hours after exercise in both protocols, without significant differences (p < 0.05). The Myo\'s concentration peak occurs 24 immediately after the exercise in both protocols, without any significant differences (p < 0.05). The pain peak 24 hours after the exercise of PROTOCOL 75% and continued in the same value 48 hours later, with pain perception of \"pain a little strong\", indicated in Borg\'s Scale. In the PROTOCOL 90% obtained a peak immediately after exercise with perception of \"moderate pain\". The greater reduction of the muscle torque occurs immediately after the exercise in both protocols, without any significant difference (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: It was possible suggest, through of indirect markers, that both protocols induced a muscle damage. The muscle torque shown to be a better marker of muscle damage because is a non-invasive way to evaluate the functionality of muscle structure. The PROTOCOL 90% seem to be more profitable in the practice because of magnitude pain perception.

The aim of this research is to investigate characteristics of accident denominators across age groups in mining and associated process industries in the Port Hedland region of Western Australia. Emphasis has been focussed on comparing young, inexperienced groups with older, more experienced groups. A literature review revealed some key contributors to accidents among younger workers, in particular, those who had only recently entered the workforce. The review also revealed contributors impacting accidents regarding other age groups over a wide range of industry types. From these findings an accident construct model and questionnaire were designed to identify contributing and mitigating denominators which input to accidents occurring across the defined age groups.

For the next generation of aircraft, the use of fibre-reinforced polymer composites and the design of

The problem of damage accumulation in laminated composite materials hasreceived much attention due to their widespread application in the aerospace, automotive,civil, and sports industries. In the aerospace industry, composites are usedto make light weight and efficient structural components. In the Boeing 787, forexample, more than 50% of the structure is made of composite materials. Althoughthere have been significant developments in analyzing cross-ply laminates, none ofthe present approaches provides reasonable predictions for multidirectional laminatesin which intralaminar cracks may form in multiple orientations. Nevertheless, theprediction of damage accumulation and its effect on structural performance is a verydifficult problem due to complexity of the cracking processes.This study presents a synergistic damage mechanics (SDM) methodology to analyzedamage behavior in multidirectional composite laminates with intralaminarcracks in plies of multiple orientations. SDM combines the strengths of micro-damagemechanics (MDM) and continuum damage mechanics (CDM) in predicting the stiffness degradation due to these cracks. The micromechanics is performed on a representativeunit cell using a three-dimensional finite element analysis to calculate thecrack opening displacement accounting for the influence of the surrounding plies, theso-called constraint effect. This information is then incorporated in the CDM formulationdealing with laminates containing cracks in different ply orientations through a `constraint parameter'. Following CDM, a separate damage mode is defined for eachtype of crack and the expressions for engineering moduli of the damaged laminateare then derived in terms of crack density and the constraint parameter. The SDMmethodology is implemented for [0m/±θn/0m/2]s laminates containing cracks in ±θplies. It is then extended to [0m/±θn/90r]s and [0m/90r/±θn]s laminates with cracksadditionally in the 90°-plies. The predictions agree well with published experimentaldata as well as independent FE computations. Limited parametric studies areperformed to show usability of SDM for more general laminates.To predict the initiation and growth of intralaminar cracks, an energy basedmodel is proposed in which these cracks initiate and multiply when the work requiredto form new set of cracks exceeds a laminate dependent critical energy release rate.The approach requires determination of average crack opening and sliding displacementsat varying crack spacing. This task is performed through a suitable 3-D FEanalysis. In case of off-axis ply cracking, a mixed mode fracture criterion is utilized,where the critical energy release rates in normal and shear modes are determinedby fitting the damage model with the experimental data for a reference laminate.The predictions from the model for [0/± θ4/01/2]s and [0/90/ ± 45]s laminates showremarkable agreement with the experimental results.The methodology and the results covered in this dissertation will be of interest tomechanics of materials researchers as well as to engineers in industry where compositematerials for structural applications are of interest.

Structures within very large displacement, mature fault zones, such as the North Branch San Gabriel Fault (NBSGF), are the product of a complex combination of processes. Off-fault damage within a damage zone and first-order geometric asperities, such as bends and steps, are thought to affect earthquake rupture propagation and energy radiation, but the effects are not completely understood. We hypothesize that the rate of accumulation of new damage decreases as fault maturity increases, and damage magnitude saturates in very large displacement faults. Nonetheless, geometric irregularities in the fault surface may modify damage zone characteristics. Accordingly, we seek to investigate the orientation, kinematics, and density of features at a range of scales within the damage zone adjacent to an abrupt 13 degree bend over 425 m in the NBSGF in order to constrain the relative role of the initiation of new damage versus the reactivation of preexisting damage adjacent to a bend. Field investigation and microstructural study focused on structural domains before, within, and after the fault bend on both sides of the fault. Subsidiary fault fabrics are similar in all domains outside the bend, which suggests a steady state fracture density and orientation distribution is established on the straight segments before and after the bend. The density of fractures within and outside the bend is similar; however, subsidiary fault orientations and kinematics are different within the bend relative to the straight segments. These observations are best explained by relatively low rates of damage generation relative to rates of fault reactivation during the later stages of faulting on the NBSGF, and that damage zone kinematics is reset as the host rock moves into the bend and again upon exiting the bend. Consequently, significant energy released during earthquake unloading can be dissipated by reactivation and slip on existing fractures in the damage zone, particularly adjacent to mesoscale faults. Thus, areas of heightened reactivation of damage, such as adjacent to geometric irregularities in the fault surface, could affect earthquake rupture dynamics.

The background to the large-scale planting of Pinus contorta in northern Sweden is reviewed with an account of the distribution and characteristics ofPi nus contorta within its natural range in western North America. The threatsto successful planting of exotics are discussed in relation to the historicalbackground. Attention is also drawn to parasitic fungi which are infectingPi nus contorta in western Canada, and to the potential threat they representto the indigenous Pi nus sylvestris in Sweden.During a seven-year-period 100 provenances of Pi nus contorta have been investigatedannually with respect to different kinds of damage, primarilythose by parasitic fungi. The study indicates that damage to Pi nus contortaprimarily occurs during the first ten years after planting. Northern provenancesof Pi nus contorta are generally more resistant to pathogens than southernprovenances. Weather damage occurs almost every year among trees ofsouthern and coastal provenance. Even trees of northern provenance have sufferedfrom weather damage due to temperature oscillations during shoot elongation.Severe weather damage is a predisposing factor to infection by secondarypathogens primarily.Gremmeniella abietina. There is a minor correlation betweensevere weather damage and Phacidium infestans. Even northern provenancesof Pinus contorta are infected by Phacidi um infestans in high altitude standsin northern Sweden. Snow b light infection is, however, of a minor importanceto lodgepole pine than to Scots pine due to the rapid early growth of the former.The most productive plants of both Pinus contorta and Pinus sylvestrisare attacked by Phacidi um infestans. Plants not infected by snow b light havea lower height growth than those infected.Severe infection by Gremmeniella abietina has been recorded after voleattack, even among northern provenances of lodgepole pine. So far Pinus contortahas mainly been infected by the same fungi as Pinus sylvestris, with the |exception of Melampsora pinitorqua and Lophodermella sul ci gena. Pinus contorta iis, however more susceptible to infection by Gremmeniella abietina in connec- !tion with vole damage, depending on the more severe injuries to lodgepole pinethan to Scots pine.So far vole damage has been the most severe threat to Pinus contorta innorthern Sweden. Voles prefer lodgepole pine to Scots pine providing vole populationis moderate. At times of high vole populations even Scots pine suffersdamage. Voles attack Pinus contorta even 14 years after planting. The differencein frequency of vole damage among provenances strongly decreased with increasedvole population and repeated attacks from year to year.Tree tilting was first noted five to eight years after planting on sites exposedto strong winds and severe icing.In the central parts of northern Sweden most provenances of Pinus contortaare less attacked by pathogens than the indigenous Pinus sylvestris, and inorthern provenances of lodgepole pine are remarkably productive in thenorthernmost site, despite a relatively high frequency of Phacidium infestar^.Later investigations indicate, however, more severe damage to Pinuscontorta with increasing latitude and altitude in northern Sweden. / digitalisering@umu

The problem of damage accumulation in laminated composite materials hasreceived much attention due to their widespread application in the aerospace, automotive,civil, and sports industries. In the aerospace industry, composites are usedto make light weight and efficient structural components. In the Boeing 787, forexample, more than 50% of the structure is made of composite materials. Althoughthere have been significant developments in analyzing cross-ply laminates, none ofthe present approaches provides reasonable predictions for multidirectional laminatesin which intralaminar cracks may form in multiple orientations. Nevertheless, theprediction of damage accumulation and its effect on structural performance is a verydifficult problem due to complexity of the cracking processes.This study presents a synergistic damage mechanics (SDM) methodology to analyzedamage behavior in multidirectional composite laminates with intralaminarcracks in plies of multiple orientations. SDM combines the strengths of micro-damagemechanics (MDM) and continuum damage mechanics (CDM) in predicting the stiffness degradation due to these cracks. The micromechanics is performed on a representativeunit cell using a three-dimensional finite element analysis to calculate thecrack opening displacement accounting for the influence of the surrounding plies, theso-called constraint effect. This information is then incorporated in the CDM formulationdealing with laminates containing cracks in different ply orientations through a `constraint parameter'. Following CDM, a separate damage mode is defined for eachtype of crack and the expressions for engineering moduli of the damaged laminateare then derived in terms of crack density and the constraint parameter. The SDMmethodology is implemented for [0m/±θn/0m/2]s laminates containing cracks in ±θplies. It is then extended to [0m/±θn/90r]s and [0m/90r/±θn]s laminates with cracksadditionally in the 90°-plies. The predictions agree well with published experimentaldata as well as independent FE computations. Limited parametric studies areperformed to show usability of SDM for more general laminates.To predict the initiation and growth of intralaminar cracks, an energy basedmodel is proposed in which these cracks initiate and multiply when the work requiredto form new set of cracks exceeds a laminate dependent critical energy release rate.The approach requires determination of average crack opening and sliding displacementsat varying crack spacing. This task is performed through a suitable 3-D FEanalysis. In case of off-axis ply cracking, a mixed mode fracture criterion is utilized,where the critical energy release rates in normal and shear modes are determinedby fitting the damage model with the experimental data for a reference laminate.The predictions from the model for [0/± θ4/01/2]s and [0/90/ ± 45]s laminates showremarkable agreement with the experimental results.The methodology and the results covered in this dissertation will be of interest tomechanics of materials researchers as well as to engineers in industry where compositematerials for structural applications are of interest.

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is an effective alternative to conventional inspections which are time-consuming and subjective. SHM can detect damage early and reduce maintenance cost and thereby help reduce the likelihood of catastrophic structural events to infrastructure such as bridges. After reviewing the Damage Index Method, an Iterative Damage Index Method (IDIM) is proposed to improve the accuracy of damage detection. These two damage detection techniques are compared numerically and experimentally using measurements from two structures, a simply supported beam and a pedestrian bridge. The dynamic properties for the numerical comparison are extracted by modal analysis in ABAQUS, while the dynamic characteristics for the experimental comparison are obtained with the Wireless Sensor Network and the Time Domain Decomposition. In both the numerical and experimental phases, the accuracy of damage predictions from each method is quantified. Compared to the traditional damage detection algorithm, the proposed IDIM is shown to be less arbitrary and more accurate when applied to both structures. The proposed IDIM has the potential to improve SHM.