Ce travail porte sur l’étude des mécanismes de phosphorylation des protéines par les sérine/thréonine kinases chez Staphylococcus aureus. Nous avons, tout d’abord, mis en évidence et caractérisé une seconde Ser/Thr-kinase, nommée Stk2. Cette kinase présente peu d’homologies avec les autres Ser/Thr-kinases bactériennes décrites à ce jour, en particulier avec la première Ser/Thr-kinase mise en évidence précédemment chez S. aureus, Stk1. Nous avons ensuite caractérisé dix sites d’autophosphorylation de Stk2 et nous avons montré que trois sites sont nécessaires à son activité. Enfin, nous avons montré que le régulateur global de virulence, SarA, est phosphorylé à la fois par Stk1 et Stk2. La phosphorylation de SarA influence sa capacité de liaison à l’ADN. Cette étude contribue à mieux appréhender, au niveau moléculaire, le rôle des Ser/Thr-kinases dans le métabolisme des bactéries et, plus particulièrement, dans la régulation de leur virulence / We report that protein phosphorylation on serine and threonine is required for controlling staphylococcal virulence. We identified and characterized a second serine/threonine kinase, Stk2, in S. aureus. Biochemical analyses revealed that this enzyme displays autokinase activity on both threonine and serine residues. Stk2 is atypical in the sense that it exhibits a weak similarity with the first Ser/Thr-kinase previously detected, Stk1, and its undergoes a different mechanism of activation compared to the other bacterial Ser/Thr-kinases described so far. We also showed that SarA, a major transcription factor that regulates more than a hundred virulence genes, is phosphorylated by both Stk1 and Stk2. Phosphorylation of SarA leads to strong effects on its ability to bind DNA. The study of Stk1 and Stk2, at the molecular level, provides a better understanding of the role of these staphylococcal Ser/Thr-kinases in bacterial metabolism and, in particular, in the regulation of virulence

Les G-quadruplexes sont des structures non-canoniques fascinantes de l’ADN et/ou de l’ARN qui surviennent dans les régions riches en Guanines. La surreprésentation de ces structures dans des régions spécifiques comme les promoteurs des oncogènes et les télomères, suggère leur intervention dans les processus cellulaires clés comme la transcription, la réplication ou bien la maturation de l’ARN. De nouveaux outils in silico, in vitro et in cellulo pour la prédiction des G-quadruplexes ont été proposés, reflétant la pertinence croissante de ces structures. Des cibles potentielles de G-quadruplexes ont été décrites dans le génome humain, chez la levure, des bactéries, virus et bien d’autres. Cependant, un des problèmes dans l’étude des G4s dans le génome humain est le grand nombre de séquences susceptibles de former des structures G4s (370,000 PQS selon Quadparser et plus d’un million en utilisant un seuil de 1.5 selon G4Hunter). Il est alors presque impossible de déconvoluer les effets biologiques reliés aux G-quadruplexes dans les cellules humaines. Pour cela, nous avons choisi Dictyostelium discoideum – dont le génome est pauvre en G4s - comme modèle eucaryote pour compléter les études sur le génome humain. Avec une analyse in silico du génome de dicty en utilisant G4Hunter, un algorithme développé dans notre laboratoire, nous avons pu détecter entre 249 (seuil=2) et 1055 (seuil=1.5) séquences pouvant adopter une structure G4. D’une façon intéressante, bien que les promoteurs soient plus pauvres encore en GC que le reste du génome de dicty, la densité des G4s dans ces régions est significativement plus haute. En utilisant une combinaison de différentes méthodes biophysiques et biochimiques, nous avons démontré que parmi les séquences prédites, 14 séquences qui sont présentes dans des gènes susceptibles de jouer des rôles importants dans dicty forment des structures G4 stables. En plus, cinq gènes de dicty contenant des séquences G4s dans leurs promoteurs ont été étudiés pour l’effet d’un nouveau ligand G4 dérivé de Porphyrine sur leur expression. Nous avons démontré que ce nouveau ligand inhibe l’expression de ces gènes significativement. Globalement, nos résultats constituent le premier pas dans le but d’adopter Dictyostelium discoideum comme un nouveau modèle pour l’étude des G-quadruplexes. / G-quadruplexes (G4) are fascinating non-canonical DNA/RNA secondary structures that occur in genomic Guanine-rich regions. The over-representation of such structures in specific regions such as promoters of oncogenes and telomeres, suggests their involvement in key processes such as transcription, replication or RNA maturation. The development of in silico, in vitro and in cellulo tools for G4 prediction is emerging, reflecting the increasing relevance of these structures. Putative G4 forming sequences (PQS) have been reported in Homo sapiens, yeast, bacteria, viruses and many others. However, one of the problems in studying G4 structures in the human genome is indeed the high number of putative G4 forming sequences (370,000 PQS according to Quadparser and over 1 million when using a threshold of 1.5 with G4Hunter). It is therefore difficult to deconvolute G4-related biological effects in human cells. For this, we chose Dictyostelium discoideum - a G4 poor genome - as a eukaryotic model to complement the human studies. By an in silico analysis of dicty genome with G4Hunter a home-made algorithm, we detected 249 (threshold=2) to 1055 (threshold=1.5) G4-prone motifs. Interestingly, despite an even lower GC content in comparison to the whole dicty genome, the density of G4 motifs in dicty promoters is significantly higher than in the rest of the genome. By using a combination of different biophysical and biochemical methods, we demonstrated that 14 dicty sequences located in key genes fold into stable G4 structures. In addition, five dicty genes containing G4-prone motifs in their promoters were studied for the effect of a new Porphyrin derivative on their expression. Our results demonstrated that the new ligand decreased the expression of the several dicty genes significantly. Overall, our results constitute the first step to adopt Dictyostelium discoideum as a model for G4 studies.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa é uma gamaproteobactéria ubíqua capaz de infectar indivíduos imunocomprometidos e causar infecções hospitalares. Entre duas repetições diretas situadas na ilha de patogenicidade PAPI-1 da linhagem PA14, encontram-se dois grupos de genes transcritos em direções opostas. O primeiro, composto de pvrS, pvrR, rcsC e rcsB, codifica proteínas de sistemas de dois componentes e está relacionado com virulência, enquanto o segundo compreende cinco genes (cupD1-D5) e codifica uma fímbria do tipo chaperoneusher, com alta similaridade com o grupo cupA, envolvido na formação de biofilme em outras linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Fímbrias da mesma família são importantes na patogenicidade de outras bactérias. Com o objetivo de estudar a relação entre esses dois grupos de genes, procurou-se caracterizar sua organização por ensaios de RT-PCR, que possibilitaram observar a disposição dos genes dos sistemas de dois componentes em dois operons distintos (pvrRS e rcsCB) e, pelo menos, cupD1-cupD2 como uma unidade transcricional, com indícios apontando para a organização de cupD1-D5 em um único operon. Os inícios de transcrição e as regiões promotoras de cada operon foram caracterizados por experimentos de RACE 5 e extensão de oligonucleotídeo marcado em busca de seqüências relevantes para a ativação da expressão desses genes. Visando investigar a regulação da expressão da fímbria CupD pelos sistemas de dois componentes codificados pelos genes adjacentes, foram realizados ensaios de qRT-PCR, os quais mostraram uma menor expressão de cupD na linhagem mutante para rcsB. RcsB apresenta um domínio de ligação a DNA e, apesar da falta de sucesso em ensaios de ligação dessa proteína à região promotora de cupD, os dados obtidos por qRT-PCR 1 indicam fortemente que essa proteína funciona como um ativador de transcrição dos genes da fímbria. Corroborando esses achados, somente quando se utilizou RNA extraído de P. aeruginosa PA14 superexpressando RcsB foi possível visualizar no gel a banda referente ao início de transcrição de cupD1-D2 no ensaio de extensão de oligonucleotídeo. Ao contrário do efeito positivo de RcsB observado na transcrição de cupD1, cupD2 e cupD5, a histidina quinase RcsC atua negativamente na expressão dos genes da fímbria, sugerindo que, nesse caso, sua atividade predominante sobre RcsB seja a de fosfatase. PvrS e PvrR parecem atuar de forma indireta e positiva sobre cupD. Como um segundo objetivo do trabalho, ensaios de virulência de P. aeruginosa no hospedeiro-modelo Dictyostelium discoideum foram otimizados, com o estabelecimento de uma técnica para se testar alguns genes estudados no laboratório que podem ser relevantes para a virulência dessa bactéria. Resultados desses ensaios confirmaram a atenuação de mutantes para uma suposta metiltransferase, já observada em modelos de planta, camundongo e drosófila. Em conjunto, os resultados desse trabalho tornam-se informações valiosas para serem usadas na pesquisa de controle de infecções por P. aeruginosa, que depende de fímbrias para colonizar com sucesso superfícies abióticas que servem de veículo de disseminação desse agente infeccioso e para que as bactérias possam persistir no organismo do hospedeiro. / Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous gammaproteobacteria able to infect immunocompromised individuals and to cause nosocomial infections. Between two direct repeats in the PAPI-1 pathogenicity island present in strain PA14, there are two gene clusters transcribed in opposite directions. The first, composed of pvrS, pvrR, rcsC and rcsB, encodes two-component systems proteins and is implicated in virulence, whereas the second comprises five genes (cupD1-D5) encoding a chaperone-usher fimbria with high similarity to cupA, a gene cluster involved in biofilm formation in other strains of P. aeruginosa. Fimbriae belonging to the same family of Cup are related to pathogenicity of other bacteria. In order to study the relationship between these two clusters, the organization of the genes in operons was characterized using RT-PCR, which results lead to the conclusion that the twocomponent systems genes are arranged into two different operons (pvrSR and rcsCB) and that cupD1-D2 share the same promoter, with some evidences that the operons extends from cupD1 to cupD5. The transcription start sites and the promoter regions of each operon were characterized with RACE 5 and primer extension assays to look for sequences that could be relevant to the activation of expression of these genes. Quantitative RT-PCR assays were carried out to investigate whether the expression of CupD fimbriae is regulated by the twocomponent systems encoded by the adjacent genes and the results showed a lower expression of cupD in the rcsB mutant strain than in the wild-type. RcsB bears a DNA-binding domain and, although our assays of DNA-protein interactions have failed, data obtained by qRT-PCR 1 strongly indicate that this protein functions as a transcription activator of fimbrial genes. These findings were corroborated by the primer extension assay, in which the band corresponding to the transcriptional start of cupD1-D2 was visible only when the reaction was performed with the RNA extracted of P. aeruginosa overexpressing RcsB. Unlike the effect observed for RcsB in cupD1, cupD2 and cupD5 transcription, the histidine quinase RcsC acts negatively in the fimbrial genes expression, suggesting that it might function predominantly as a RcsB phosphatase. PvrS and PvrR seem to regulate cupD positively and indirectly. As a second aim of this work, virulence assays of P. aeruginosa in the model host Dictyostelium discoideum were optimized, and a technique for testing genes studied in the laboratory that could be important for Pseudomonas virulence was established. These assays confirmed the attenuation-in-virulence of strains mutant in a putative methyltransferase gene, as observed before in plant, mouse and drosophila models. The results obtained in this work may contribute to P. aeruginosa infection control research, since this bacterium depends on fimbriae to successfully colonize abiotic surfaces that act as a dissemination vehicle, and to allow the bacteria to persist into the host organism.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa é uma gamaproteobactéria ubíqua capaz de infectar indivíduos imunocomprometidos e causar infecções hospitalares. Entre duas repetições diretas situadas na ilha de patogenicidade PAPI-1 da linhagem PA14, encontram-se dois grupos de genes transcritos em direções opostas. O primeiro, composto de pvrS, pvrR, rcsC e rcsB, codifica proteínas de sistemas de dois componentes e está relacionado com virulência, enquanto o segundo compreende cinco genes (cupD1-D5) e codifica uma fímbria do tipo chaperoneusher, com alta similaridade com o grupo cupA, envolvido na formação de biofilme em outras linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Fímbrias da mesma família são importantes na patogenicidade de outras bactérias. Com o objetivo de estudar a relação entre esses dois grupos de genes, procurou-se caracterizar sua organização por ensaios de RT-PCR, que possibilitaram observar a disposição dos genes dos sistemas de dois componentes em dois operons distintos (pvrRS e rcsCB) e, pelo menos, cupD1-cupD2 como uma unidade transcricional, com indícios apontando para a organização de cupD1-D5 em um único operon. Os inícios de transcrição e as regiões promotoras de cada operon foram caracterizados por experimentos de RACE 5 e extensão de oligonucleotídeo marcado em busca de seqüências relevantes para a ativação da expressão desses genes. Visando investigar a regulação da expressão da fímbria CupD pelos sistemas de dois componentes codificados pelos genes adjacentes, foram realizados ensaios de qRT-PCR, os quais mostraram uma menor expressão de cupD na linhagem mutante para rcsB. RcsB apresenta um domínio de ligação a DNA e, apesar da falta de sucesso em ensaios de ligação dessa proteína à região promotora de cupD, os dados obtidos por qRT-PCR 1 indicam fortemente que essa proteína funciona como um ativador de transcrição dos genes da fímbria. Corroborando esses achados, somente quando se utilizou RNA extraído de P. aeruginosa PA14 superexpressando RcsB foi possível visualizar no gel a banda referente ao início de transcrição de cupD1-D2 no ensaio de extensão de oligonucleotídeo. Ao contrário do efeito positivo de RcsB observado na transcrição de cupD1, cupD2 e cupD5, a histidina quinase RcsC atua negativamente na expressão dos genes da fímbria, sugerindo que, nesse caso, sua atividade predominante sobre RcsB seja a de fosfatase. PvrS e PvrR parecem atuar de forma indireta e positiva sobre cupD. Como um segundo objetivo do trabalho, ensaios de virulência de P. aeruginosa no hospedeiro-modelo Dictyostelium discoideum foram otimizados, com o estabelecimento de uma técnica para se testar alguns genes estudados no laboratório que podem ser relevantes para a virulência dessa bactéria. Resultados desses ensaios confirmaram a atenuação de mutantes para uma suposta metiltransferase, já observada em modelos de planta, camundongo e drosófila. Em conjunto, os resultados desse trabalho tornam-se informações valiosas para serem usadas na pesquisa de controle de infecções por P. aeruginosa, que depende de fímbrias para colonizar com sucesso superfícies abióticas que servem de veículo de disseminação desse agente infeccioso e para que as bactérias possam persistir no organismo do hospedeiro. / Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous gammaproteobacteria able to infect immunocompromised individuals and to cause nosocomial infections. Between two direct repeats in the PAPI-1 pathogenicity island present in strain PA14, there are two gene clusters transcribed in opposite directions. The first, composed of pvrS, pvrR, rcsC and rcsB, encodes two-component systems proteins and is implicated in virulence, whereas the second comprises five genes (cupD1-D5) encoding a chaperone-usher fimbria with high similarity to cupA, a gene cluster involved in biofilm formation in other strains of P. aeruginosa. Fimbriae belonging to the same family of Cup are related to pathogenicity of other bacteria. In order to study the relationship between these two clusters, the organization of the genes in operons was characterized using RT-PCR, which results lead to the conclusion that the twocomponent systems genes are arranged into two different operons (pvrSR and rcsCB) and that cupD1-D2 share the same promoter, with some evidences that the operons extends from cupD1 to cupD5. The transcription start sites and the promoter regions of each operon were characterized with RACE 5 and primer extension assays to look for sequences that could be relevant to the activation of expression of these genes. Quantitative RT-PCR assays were carried out to investigate whether the expression of CupD fimbriae is regulated by the twocomponent systems encoded by the adjacent genes and the results showed a lower expression of cupD in the rcsB mutant strain than in the wild-type. RcsB bears a DNA-binding domain and, although our assays of DNA-protein interactions have failed, data obtained by qRT-PCR 1 strongly indicate that this protein functions as a transcription activator of fimbrial genes. These findings were corroborated by the primer extension assay, in which the band corresponding to the transcriptional start of cupD1-D2 was visible only when the reaction was performed with the RNA extracted of P. aeruginosa overexpressing RcsB. Unlike the effect observed for RcsB in cupD1, cupD2 and cupD5 transcription, the histidine quinase RcsC acts negatively in the fimbrial genes expression, suggesting that it might function predominantly as a RcsB phosphatase. PvrS and PvrR seem to regulate cupD positively and indirectly. As a second aim of this work, virulence assays of P. aeruginosa in the model host Dictyostelium discoideum were optimized, and a technique for testing genes studied in the laboratory that could be important for Pseudomonas virulence was established. These assays confirmed the attenuation-in-virulence of strains mutant in a putative methyltransferase gene, as observed before in plant, mouse and drosophila models. The results obtained in this work may contribute to P. aeruginosa infection control research, since this bacterium depends on fimbriae to successfully colonize abiotic surfaces that act as a dissemination vehicle, and to allow the bacteria to persist into the host organism.

Les protéines de la membrane plasmique jouent un rôle fondamental dans la détection des informations véhiculées par le milieu extracellulaire et l’adaptation des cellules aux variations de l’environnement. Elles font l’objet d’une régulation fine qui permet de moduler leur présence à la membrane et de contrôler les voies de signalisation en aval. Dans ce contexte, les arrestines qui constituent une superfamille de protéines adaptatrices, se sont imposées comme des régulateurs clés depuis la découverte des β-arrestines et arrestines visuelles, spécifiques des eucaryotes supérieurs, et de leur rôle dans la régulation des récepteurs couplés aux protéines G hétéro-trimériques, jusqu’à l’identification plus récente de nouveaux membres apparentés, présents des mammifères jusqu’aux protistes, et partageant un rôle commun de régulation de cargos membranaires. Ce travail de thèse porte sur la caractérisation fonctionnelle de deux représentants du clan arrestine de l’amibe Dictyostelium discoideum, les protéines AdcB et AdcC. Ces deux protéines partagent une même organisation multimodulaire, spécifique aux Dictyostélides, qui associe au cœur arrestine, un domaine putatif C2 de type calcium-binding et deux modules SAMs, respectivement aux extrémités N- et C-terminales des protéines. Nous avons établi que ces domaines apportent des fonctions spécifiques à ces arrestines en leur conférant la capacité de lier des lipides anioniques in vitro en réponse au calcium à travers leur module C2, et de former des structures homo- et hétéro-oligomériques via leurs domaines SAMs. En dépit de ces similarités, AdcB et AdcC présentent un comportement différent in cellulo dans la mesure où seul AdcC transloque à la membrane plasmique en réponse à une élévation du calcium cytosolique, provoquée par la stimulation des cellules par les chimioattractants AMPc et acide folique ou le calcium lui-même. Ces résultats ont été complétés par une étude phénotypique des mutants invalidés pour ces arrestines et la recherche de partenaires qui ouvrent des pistes pour des études futures. / Integral proteins of the plasma membrane play a major role in the detection of environmental cues and in the adaptation of cells to variations of their environment. Regulatory mechanisms modulate their presence at the cell surface and control the signaling cascades activated in response to their stimulation. In this context, members of the arrestin revealed to be key regulators, since the discovery of β- and visual arrestins and their well-described role in the regulation of G-protein coupled receptors in complex organisms, and the more recent identification of arrestin-related proteins, present from mammals to protists and sharing functions in membrane cargo trafficking. This work aims at the functional characterization of two arrestin-related proteins of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, the AdcB and AdcC proteins. These two members of the arrestin clan share a similar multimodular organization, specific to Dictyostelids, with a putative N-terminal calcium-binding type C2 domain and two C-terminal SAM domains surrounding the arrestin module. We showed that the C2 domain confers calcium-dependent binding properties to anionic lipids in vitro and that the SAM domains allow the self-association and hetero-interaction of the two proteins in complexes of high molecular weight. Despite these similarities, AdcB and AdcC harbor a distinct behavior in vivo as only AdcC translocates to the plasma membrane in response to an intracellular calcium rise triggered by the chemoattractants acid folic and cAMP or extracellular calcium. In parallel, a phenotypic characterization of adcB and adcC single or double null mutants and a search for partners were conducted, that open new avenues for future research on these adaptor proteins.

Cette thèse présente nouveaux organismes trouvés dans d'échantillons d'eaux usées proviennent la zone sud de Jeddah, en Arabie Saoudite. Legionella saoudiensis, Kaumoebavirus, moumouvirus saoudien (SDMV), Yasminevirus et Bunga messiliensis qui sont isolés par une méthode de co-culture amibienne d'infection par Dictyostelium discoideum ATCC 44841, Vermamoeba vermiformis CDC-19, Acanthamoeba polyphaga Linc AP-1 , et Acanthamoeba griffinii, respectivement. Legionella saoudiensis, une souche bactérienne Gram-négative, en forme de bacille, LS-1T appartient au genre Legionella de la famille des Legionellaceae, basée sur des séquences de gène 16S rRNA et d'autres 4 gènes (mip, rpoB, rnpB et 23S-5S). D'une part, le KAUmoebavirus a des capsides icosaédriques de ~ 250 nm-large, un génome d'ADN de 350 731 pb, et une densité de codage de 86%, correspondant à 465 gènes. La plupart de ces gènes (59%) sont étroitement liés aux gènes de Faustoviruses (43%) et Asfarviruses (23%). D'autre part, le moumouvirus saoudien est un nouveau virus géant appartenant à la lignée Mimivirus B, de l'hôpital universitaire King Abdulaziz à Djeddah, et a présenté des particules icosaédriques de 500 nm avec un génome de 1 046 087 pb, plus grand que les génomes moumouvirus qui ont été décrites dans le passé. Il a été prédit que son génome code pour 868 ORF, dont la taille varie de 54 à 2 914 acides aminés. En outre, il code pour 40 nouveaux gènes (ORFans) sans similitude avec d'autres séquences. Ces résultats montrent que la dispositiond’une carte élargie des protistes conduit à découvrir de nouveaux virus géants. / This thesis displays novel organisms that are found in sewage water samples from southern area of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. These organisms are Legionella saoudiensis, Kaumoebavirus, Saudi moumouvirus (SDMV), Yasminevirus, and Bung messiliensis that are isolated by amoebal co-culture method of infection with Dictyostelium discoideum ATCC 44841, Vermamoeba vermiformis CDC-19, Acanthamoeba polyphaga Linc AP-1, and Acanthamoeba griffinii, respectively. Legionella saoudiensis, a Gram-negative, bacilli shaped bacterial strain, LS-1T belongs to the genus Legionella in the family Legionellaceae based on 16S rRNA gene sequences and other 4 genes (mip, rpoB, rnpB, and 23S-5S). On one hand, KAUmoebavirus has ~250-nm-large icosahedral capsids, a 350,731 bp DNA genome, and a coding density of 86%, corresponding to 465 genes. Most of these genes (59%) are closely related to genes from Faustoviruses (43%) and Asfarviruses (23%). On the other hand, Saudi moumouvirus is a new giant virus belonging to Mimivirus lineage B, from the King Abdulaziz University hospital in Jeddah, and presented 500 nm icosahedral particles with a 1,046,087 bp genome, which is larger than moumouvirus-like genomes which have been described in the past. Its genome was predicted to encode 868 ORFs, ranging in size from 54 to 2,914 amino acids. Furthermore, this genome was predicted to encode 40 new genes (ORFans) without similarity with other sequences. These findings show that the widen chart of protists apply lead to discover new giant viruses.

A key prerequisite for cellular and organismal health is a functional proteome. A variety of human protein misfolding diseases are associated with the occurrence of amyloid protein aggregates, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Huntington’s disease. The proteins involved in disease manifestation all contain aggregation-prone sequences of low compositional complexity. Such sequences are also known as prion-like, because of their sequence similarity to yeast prions. Yeast prion proteins are a specific subset of amyloid forming proteins with distinct physio-chemical and functional features, which give them transmissible properties. The aggregation properties of yeast prions and disease-related prion-like proteins reside in structurally independent, prion-forming domains (PrDs). These domains are highly enriched for uncharged polar amino acids, such as glutamine (Q) and asparagine (N). These compositional features can be used to predict prion-like proteins bioinformatically. To investigate the prevalence of prion-like proteins across different organisms, we analyzed a range of eukaryotic proteomes. Our analysis revealed that the slime mold D. discoideum contains the highest number of prion-like N/Q-rich proteins of all organisms. Based on this finding, we hypothesized that D. discoideum could be a valuable model system to study protein homeostasis (proteostasis) and the molecular basis of protein misfolding diseases. To explore how D. discoideum manages its highly aggregation-prone proteome, we analyzed the behavior of several well-characterized misfolding-prone marker proteins (variants of the disease-causing exon 1 of the huntingtin protein as well as wildtype and variant versions of the Q/N-rich yeast prion Sup35NM). Intriguingly, these proteins did not form cytosolic aggregates in D. discoideum, as they do in other organisms. Aggregates, however, formed as a result of heat stress, which indicates that the tested proteins have the capacity to aggregate, but are kept under tight control under normal conditions. Furthermore, when the stress level was reduced, the stress-induced aggregates dissolved, suggesting that D. discoideum has evolved mechanisms to reverse aggregation after a period of acute stress. Together, these findings reveal an unusual resilience of D. discoideum to aggregation-prone proteins, which very likely results from specific adaptations in its proteostasis network. By studying these specific adaptations, we could get important insight into the strategies that nature employs to control and maintain a highly aggregation-prone proteome. So far, our experimental investigations have revealed evidence for three specific adaptations. First, we identified the disaggregase Hsp101 as a key player in the acute stress response of D. discoideum. A functional analysis of Hsp101 in yeast and D. discoideum revealed that it supports thermotolerance. Second, we found evidence for an important role of the nucleus and nucleolus in proteostasis. We discovered that a small fraction of highly aggregation-prone proteins accumulated in the nucleus or nucleolus of D. discoideum cells. The magnitude of this nuclear accumulation could be increased by proteasome impairment, which suggests that the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is involved. This finding is consistent with previous studies in other organisms and hints at the possibility that D. discoideum disposes of aggregation-prone proteins by degrading them in the nucleus/nucleolus. Third and finally, we found that cells containing nuclear accumulations are asymmetrically distributed in the multicellular developmental stage (slug), suggesting that D. discoideum employs cell-sorting mechanisms to dispose of cells with accumulated protein damage. Although our current understanding of proteostasis in D. discoideum is preliminary, we have gained important insight into the molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways that D. discoideum uses to counteract protein aggregation. Findings from this work will inform similar comparative studies in other organisms and will impact our molecular understanding of protein misfolding diseases and aging. / Eine wesentliche Voraussetzung für die Gesundheit von Zellen und Organismen ist ein funktionales Proteom. Eine Reihe von humanen Protein- Missfaltungs-Erkrankungen, wie Chorea Huntington und Amyotrophe Lateralsklerose (ALS) werden mit dem Auftreten von amyloiden Protein- Aggregaten in Verbindung gebracht. Sämtliche Proteine, die in der Pathogenese dieser Krankheiten eine Rolle spielen, enthalten aggregations-anfällige Sequenzen mit geringer Sequenzkomplexität. Solche Sequenzen werden als Prion-ähnlich bezeichnet, da sie in ihrer Zusammensetzung den Prionen aus der Hefe S. cerevisiae gleichen. Die Prion-Proteine der Hefe gehören zu einer Unterart von amyloid-aggregierenden Proteinen, die durch bestimmte physikochemische und funktionelle Eigenschaften einen infektiösen Charakter erhalten. Die Aggregations-Eigenschaften von Hefeprionen und aggregationsanfällige Proteinen, die mit Erkrankungen in Verbindung gebracht werden, basieren auf strukturell unabhängigen, Prion-bildenden Domänen (prion domain, PrD). Diese Domänen sind angereichert mit polaren Aminosäuren wie Glutamin und Asparagin. Diese Zusammensetzung kann dazu verwendet werden prion-ähnliche Proteine bioinformatisch vorherzusagen. Um die Verbreitung von Prion-ähnlichen Proteinen in verschiedenen Organismen zu untersuchen, analysierten wir eine Reihe von eukaryotischen Proteomen. Unsere Analyse zeigte, dass der Schleimpilz D. discoideum die höchste Anzahl von Prion-ähnlichen N/Q-reichen Proteinen aufzeigt. Aufgrund dieser Erkenntnisse erstellten wir die Hypothese, dass D. discoideum ein nützlicher Modellorganismus sein könnte, um Protein Homöostase (Proteostase) sowie die molekulare Basis von Proteins-Missfaltungs-Erkrankungen zu ergründen. Um zu analysieren, wie D. discoideum mit seinem höchst aggregations-anfälligen Proteom umgehen kann, untersuchten wir das Verhalten mehrerer bereits charakterisierter aggregations-anfälliger Marker-Proteine in D. discoideum. Hierbei verwendeten wir Varianten des krankheits-erzeugenden Exon 1 des humanen Huntingtin Protein sowie den wild-typ und Varianten des N/Q-reichen Hefe Prions Sup35. Interessanterweise bildeten diese Proteine, anders als in anderen Organismen, keine zytosolischen Aggregate in D. discoideum aus. Aggregate wurden jedoch unter Hitzestress-Bedingungen gebildet. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die getesteten Proteine durchaus das Vermögen zu aggregieren besitzen, jedoch unter normalen Wachstumsbedingungen streng kontrolliert werden. Wenn, darüberhinaus das Stress- Level gesenkt wurde, kam es zur Auflösung der stress-induzierten Aggregate. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass D. discoideum Mechanismen entwickelt hat, um Aggregate nach Perioden von akutem Stress wieder aufzulösen. Zusammengenommen enthüllen diese Erkenntnisse eine ungewöhnliche Widerstandsfähigkeit gegenüber aggregations-anfälligen Proteinen. Diese beruht höchstwahrscheinlich auf spezifischen Modifikationen im Proteostase Netzwerk. Durch die Analyse dieser spezifischen Anpassungen könnten wichtige Einblicke in die Strategien gewährt werden, welche die Natur benutzt, um ein höchst aggregations-anfälliges Proteom zu erhalten und zu kontrollieren. Bisher erbrachten unsere Experimente Anhaltspunkte für drei spezifische Anpassungen. Erstens zeigten wir, dass die Disaggregase Hsp101 eine Schlüsselrolle in der akuten Stressantwort in D. discoideum einnimmt. Eine funktionale Analyse von Hsp101 in D. discoideum und Hefe zeigte, dass die Disaggregase Thermotoleranz fördert. Zweitens haben wir Anhaltspunkte, dass der Nukleus und der Nukleolus eine wichtige Rolle in der Proteostase einnehmen. Eine geringe Fraktion der überaus aggregations-anfälligen Proteine akkumuliert im Nukleus oder Nukleolus von D. discoideum. Das Ausmaß der nuklearen Akkumulation konnte erhöht werden, wenn das Proteasom beeinträchtigt wird. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass das Ubiquitin-Proteasom-System involviert sein könnte. Diese Beobachtung ist im Einklang mit jüngsten Berichten aus anderen Organismen und daraus folgt, dass D. discoideum möglicherweise aggregations-anfällige Proteine durch Abbau im Nukleus entsorgt. Drittens konnten wir feststellen, dass Zellen, die nukleare Akkumulationen enthalten, asymmetrisch in der multizellulären Entwicklungs-Struktur des Pseudoplasmodiums verteilt sind. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass D. discoideum möglicherweise den Zellsortierungsmechanismus während der Entwicklung nutzen kann, um Zellen mit angereicherten Protein-Schäden zu beseitigen. Auch wenn das gegenwärtige Verständnis der Proteostase in D. discoideum nur vorläufig ist, haben wir wichtige Einblicke in die molekularen Mechanismen und zellulären Prozesse erhalten, die D. discoideum verwendet, um Protein-Aggregation zu verhindern. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit werden ähnliche vergleichende Studien in anderen Organismen beeinflussen und Auswirkungen auf unser molekulares Verständnis über Protein-Missfaltungs-Erkrankungen und das Altern haben.

Macropinocytosis and phagocytosis, two actin-dependent and clathrin independent events of endocytosis, enable the cells such as macrophages and neutrophils to either internalize pathogens and initiates the human innate immune response or serve as a direct entry route for productive infection of pathogen. Dictyostelium discoideum, soil-living amoeba, a unicellular eukaryote that could professionally internalize fluid phase or particles several folds more than that of macrophages and neutrophils. Additionally, multiple key signaling pathways are conserved between Dictyostelium and mammalian cells, including pathways affecting small GTPases Ras and Rac and their downstream effectors, and F-Actin remodeling. All these traits makes Dictyostelium an excellent model organism to study the process pf macropinocytosis and phagocytosis. Upon internalization of the prey, these macropinocytes and phagocytes are often in an environment of increased production of superoxide radicals in the prey-containing vesicles, which helps stimulates the downstream signaling pathways to digest the prey inside. However, the mechanism of how superoxide regulates the process of macropinocytosis and phagocytosis is not fully understood. We had previously reported that Dictyostelium cells lacking Superoxide dismutase C (SodC) exhibited aberrantly high level of active RasG, high basal level of Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3), and severe chemotaxis defects. Now we report that sodC- cells displayed aberrant endosomal vesicle trafficking, significantly compromised particle uptake and defective cell to substratum matrix adhesion compared to that of wild type cells. By using high resolution live imaging microscope we also show that sodC- cells have defects in F-Actin remodeling at the phagocytic rim extension and F-Actin depolymerization of the nascent phagosome. Interestingly, the introduction of overexpressing of cytoplasmic superoxide dismutase (SodA), redox insensitive RasG (C118A) or treatment of PI3K inhibitor LY294002 in sodC- cells significantly rescued the defects of endosomal vesicle trafficking, particle uptake and adhesion. This project suggests that superoxide dismutase C regulates the endosomal vesicle trafficking, phagocytosis and cell to substratum matrix adhesion through the RasG/PI3K signaling axis in Dictyostelium cells.

CE TRAVAIL A PORTE SUR L'ETUDE DE LA PROTEINE MULTIMODULAIRE ALIX CHEZ DICTYOSTELIUM DISCOIDEUM, UN ORGANISME EUCARYOTE Où DEVELOPPEMENT MULTICELLULAIRE ET PROGRAMME DE MORT CELLULAIRE SONT ETROITEMENT LIES. L'INVALIDATION D'ALX MONTRE QUE CETTE PROTEINE EST ESSENTIELLE A LA DIFFERENCIATION CELLULAIRE ET A LA MORPHOGENESE AU COURS DU DEVELOPPEMENT MULTICELLULAIRE MAIS PAS AU PROGRAMME DE MORT. UNE APPROCHE STRUCTURE/FONCTION A REVELE QUE LE DOMAINE SUSCEPTIBLE DE PARTICIPER A DES TORSADES D'HELICES DE CETTE PROTEINE EST INDISPENSABLE A SA FONCTION DEVELOPPEMENTALE. DE PLUS, SA DISTRIBUTION CELLULAIRE INDIQUE QU'ALIX EST LOCALISE DANS LA VOIE ENDOCYTAIRE EN ASSOCIATION AVEC LA MACHINERIE ESCRT (ENDOSOMAL SORTING COMPLEX REQUIRED FOR TRANSPORT), IMPLIQUEE DANS LE TRI ET LA FORMATION DU CORPS MULTIVESICULAIRE (MVB). CEPENDANT, L'INVALIDATION DES GENES CODANTS POUR DIFFERENTS COMPOSANTS DES COMPLEXES ESCRT INDUIT DES PHENOTYPES DISSEMBLABLES. CECI SUGGERE QUE SOIT CES PROTEINES ONT DES ROLES DANS D'AUTRES PROCESSUS CELLULAIRES SOIT QUE CETTE VOIE N'EST PAS PERTURBEE DE LA MEME FAÇON DANS LES DIFFERENTS MUTANTS.

DICTYOSTELIUM DISCOIDEUM EST UN ORGANISME UNICELLULAIRE SE NOURRISSANT PAR PHAGOCYTOSE DE MICROORGANISMES ET ENDOCYTOSE DE PHASE FLUIDE. ELLE EST CAPABLE DE MIGRATION SUR UN SUBSTRAT, PAR EMISSION DE PROTRUSIONS SUR LE FRONT CELLULAIRE AVANT, ET PAR RETRACTION DU FRONT ARRIERE. LA MOTILITE EST LIEE A L'ADHERENCE DES CELLULES SUR LE SUBSTRAT, SIEGE DE LA TRANSMISSION DES FORCES EXERCEES PAR LA CELLULE. SOUMISE A UNE FORCE DE CISAILLEMENT HYDRODYNAMIQUE, DICTYOSTELIUM SE DEPLACE DANS LE SENS DU FLUX. NOUS AVONS ETUDIE LES MECANISMES BIOCHIMIQUES MIS EN JEU EN REPONSE A LA FORCE OU A L'ETALEMENT. NOUS AVONS ANALYSER LE COMPORTEMENT DE CELLULES SAUVAGES ET DE MUTANTS D'INVALIDATION, A L'ECHELLE DE LA CELLULE ET DU BORD CELLULAIRE. NOUS MONTRONS PLUSIEURS RESULTATS. LE CALCIUM LIBRE EXTRACELLULAIRE AUGMENTE LA VITESSE DE MIGARTION DES CELLULES ET LEUR SENSIBILITE AUX FORCES. CECI EST DU A UNE AUGMENTATION DE LA DYNAMIQUE DES BORDS CELLULAIRES, LES PROTRUSIONS ETANT PLUS GRANDES ET LES RETRACTIONS PLUS EFFICACES. IL Y A DES OSCILLATIONS DES BORDS CELLULAIRES, AVEC DES PERIODES PROPRES DIFFERENTES A L'AVANT ET A L'ARRIERE DE LA CELLULE. CES PERIODES NE DEPENDENT NI DE LA CONCENTRATION NI DU TYPE CELLULAIRE. LE CALCIUM AUGMENTE LA CINETIQUE ET LA REGULARITE DE L'ETALEMENT, EN AGISSANT SUR LA POLYMERISATION D'ACTINE. L'ETALEMENT NE DEPEND QUE DE LA POLYMERISATION D'ACTINE ET DE L'EMISSION DE PROTRUSIONS, TANDIS QUE LES RETRACTIONS NE PEUVENT EXISTER SANS MYOSINE 2. ENFIN, LES PROTEINES G ET LES RECETEURS A L'IP3 SONT IMPLIQUES DANS LA SIGNALISATION CALCIQUE.