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Energy harvesting technologies are crucial for the future green transition. Research shows the versatility and efficiency of integrated energy harvesting solutions. Economic advantages, enhanced energy efficiency, and reduced reliance on conventional power sources can be achieved with well implemented systems. Furthermore, there are environmental benefits from using more renewable energy sources due to fewer emissions from battery production and replacement. One of the challenges with system implementation is achieving high efficiency for various energy sources and system loads. This study aimed to showcase the design steps for crucial system blocks to aid in designing complete energy harvesting systems. The designs are done in a 180 nm CMOS process. A literature study, including recent research on capacitive and inductive converters, gave insight into the limitations of the different topologies. The study also included other crucial blocks for efficient energy harvesting systems, such as Maximum power point tracking and cold-start. In the study, commercially available energy harvesting chips are discussed, and it is concluded that the market is limited regarding alternatives for a wide range of systems. A microcontroller is needed for an adaptable system. For the study, an additional aim was to provide support for an MSP430L092, a low-power microcontroller from Texas Instruments. The support included level shifters and supply voltage generation. Due to time constraints, not all blocks were designed. The designed blocks are a boost converter, level shifters and a Pulse-width modulation generation network composed of a comparator and oscillator. Other blocks needed in efficient energy harvesting systems are included as short discussions of possible implementations from other research and commercially available components. Simulation of the boost converter showed that the main losses are from the non ideal inductor. These were minimised by using a higher switching frequency of 1 MHz and allowing a larger inductor ripple current, which allowed for a smaller inductor. From a 500 mV input voltage boosting to a 2 V output voltage with a constant output power of 120 μW an efficiencyof 88.36% was achieved. A high efficiency was achieved down to 300 mV of input voltage. In the pulse-width modulation network simulation, the main losses were found to be from the current spikes in the buffering stages. Higher voltage threshold transistors and smaller widths minimised these issues. Simulation at 1 MHz showed a power consumption of 5 μW for the complete network and a duty cycle range of 28% to 91%. The comparators standalone power consumption was simulated to 2.3 μW. Some deviations from calculations were noted in the oscillator circuit, which was concluded to be an issue due to the heavy power optimisation. It was not investigated any further in this work but left as future work to investigate the comparator further. From simulated data and datasheets, an estimation for the total combined system efficiency is calculated to be 71.3%. Future work includes the layout of the designed blocks to evaluate the impact of the parasitic extraction.

With the fast development of information technology (IT) industry, the demand and market volume for off-line power supplies keeps increasing, especially those for desktop, flat-panel TV, telecommunication, computer server and datacenter. An off-line power supply normally consists of electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter, power factor correction (PFC) circuit and isolated DC/DC converter. Isolated DC/DC converter occupies more than half of the volume in an off-line power supply and takes the most control responsibilities, so isolated DC/DC converter is the key aspect to improve the overall performance and reduce the total cost for off-line power supply. On the other hand, of all the power supplies for industrial applications, those for the data center servers are the most performance driven, energy and cost conscious due to the large electricity consumption. The total power consumption of today's data centers is becoming noticeable. Moreover, with the increase in cloud computing and big data, energy use of data centers is expected to continue rapidly increasing in the near future. It is very challenging to design isolated DC/DC converters for datacenters since they are required to provide low-voltage high-current output and fast transient response. The LLC resonant converters have been widely used as the DC-DC converter in off-line power supplies and datacenters due to its high efficiency and hold-up capability. Using LLC converters can minimize switching losses and reduce electromagnetic interference. Almost all the high-end offline power supplies employs LLC converters as the DC/DC converter. But there are three major challenges in LLC converters. Firstly, the control characteristics of the LLC resonant converters are very complex due to the dynamics of the resonant tank. This dissertation proposes to implement a special LLC control method, state-trajectory control, with a low-cost microcontroller (MCU). And further efforts have been made to integrate all the state-trajectory control function into one MCU for high-frequency LLC converters, including start-up and short-circuit protection, fast transient response, light load efficiency improvement and SR driving. Secondly, the transformer in power supplies for IT industry is very bulky and it is very challenging to design. By pushing switching frequency up to MHz with gallium nitride (GaN) devices, the magnetics can be integrated into printed circuit board (PCB) windings. This dissertation proposes a novel matrix transformer structure and its design methodology. On the other hand, shielding technique can be employed to suppress the CM noise for PCB winding transformer. This dissertation proposes a novel shielding technique, which not only suppresses CM noise, but also improves the efficiency. The proposed transformer design and shielding technique is applied to an 800W 400V/12V LLC converter design. Thirdly, the LLC converters have sinusoidal current shape due to the nature of resonance, which has larger root mean square (RMS) of current, as well as larger conduction loss, compared to pulse width modulation (PWM) converter. This dissertation employs three-phase interleaved LLC converters to reduce the circulating energy by inter-connecting the three phases in certain way, and proposed a novel magnetic structure to integrated three inductors and three transformers into one magnetic core. By pushing switching frequency up to 1MHz, all the magnetics can be implemented with 4-layer PCB winding. Additional 2-layer shielding can be integrated to reduce CM noise. The proposed magnetic structure is applied to a 3kW 400V/12V LLC converter. This dissertation solves the challenges in analysis, digital control, magnetic design and EMI in high-frequency DC/DC converters in off-line power supplies. With the academic contribution in this dissertation, GaN devices can be successfully applied to high-frequency DC/DC converters with MHz switching frequency to achieve high efficiency, high power density, simplified but high-performance digital control and automatic manufacturing. The cost will be reduced and the performance will be improved significantly. / Ph. D. / With the fast development of information technology (IT) industry, the demand and market volume for off-line power supplies keeps increasing, especially those for desktop, flat-panel TV, telecommunication, computer server and datacenter. The total power consumption of today’s data centers is becoming noticeable. Moreover, with the increase in cloud computing and big data, energy use of data centers is expected to continue rapidly increasing in the near future. The efficiency of off-line power supplies is very critical for the whole human society in order to reduce the total electricity consumption. And the cost is also a key driving force for the development of novel technology in off-line power supplies due to the large market volume. An off-line power supply normally consists of electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter, power factor correction (PFC) circuit and isolated DC/DC converter. Isolated DC/DC converter occupies more than half of the volume in an off-line power supply and takes the most control responsibilities, so isolated DC/DC converter is the key aspect to improve the overall performance and reduce the total cost for off-line power supply. Among all the DC/DC converter topologies, the LLC resonant converters have been most widely used as the DC/DC converter due to its high efficiency and hold-up capability. But there are three major challenges in LLC converters. Firstly, the control characteristics are very complex due to the dynamics of the resonant tank. To achieve good control performance, very complex and expensive digital controller has to be employed. Secondly, the magnetic components are very bulky, and it is expensive to manufacture them. Thirdly, there is circulating energy in LLC converters due to the nature of resonance, which increases the total loss. To solve these challenges, this dissertation proposes to implement a special control method, state-trajectory control, with a low-cost microcontroller (MCU). All the control functions can be integrated into one simple, low-cost MCU to replace the previous complex and expensive controller. By pushing switching frequency up to MHz with next generation power devices, this dissertation proposes a novel magnetics structure that can be integrated into printed circuit board (PCB) windings to achieve low-cost and automatic manufacturing. Furthermore, this dissertation employs three-phase interleaved LLC converters topology to reduce the circulating energy, and proposed a novel magnetic structure to integrated three inductors and three transformers into one magnetic core with simple 4-layer PCB winding. All the proposed technologies have been verified on hardware prototypes, and significant improvements over industrial state-of-art designs have been demonstrated. To sum up, this dissertation solves the challenges in analysis, digital control, magnetic design and EMI in DC/DC converters for off-line power supplies. With the academic contribution in this dissertation, the cost can be reduced due to the simplified control and automatic manufactured magnetics, and the efficiency can be improved with proper utilization of next generation power devices. This dissertation will improve future DC/DC converter for IT industrial in the three most important aspects of efficiency, power density and cost.

The increasing global energy demand calls for attention on renewable energy development. Among the available technology, the photovoltaic (PV) panels is a popular solution. Thus, targeted Power Conditioning Systems (PCSs) are drawing increased attention in research. Microconverter is one of the PCS that can support versatile applications in various power line architectures. This work focuses on the comparison of circuit secondary side architectures for LLC converter for microconverter application. As the research foundation, general characteristic of solar energy and PV panel operation are introduced for the understanding of the needs. Previous works are referenced and compared for advantages and limitation. Base on conventional secondary resonant full bridge LLC converter, the two sub-topologies of different secondary rectification network: active, full bridge secondary and active voltage doubler output end LLC converter are presented in detail. The main operating principle is also described in mathematical formula with the corresponding cycle-by-cycle operation to ensure the functional equality before proceeding to performance comparison. Circuit efficiency analysis is conducted on the main power stage and the key components with frequency consideration. The hardware circuit achieved the designed function while the overall hardware efficiency result agrees with analysis. In the implementation, the transformer is costume built for the system pacification. Another part is the parasitic effect analysis. At a high operating frequency and to achieve very high-frequency operation, parasitic effect need to be fully understood and considered as it may have the dominating effect on the system. / Master of Science / With the increasing demand for electric energy in today's world while the traditional natural energy recourses such as coals running towards depletion, renewable energy sources become an important alternative. Among them, solar energy is an option with easy access and convenient utilization. The photovoltaic (PV) panel requires matching Power Conditioning Systems (PCS) for connection and adaptation. Microconverter is one of the PCS that can support versatile applications in various power line architectures. This work focuses on different sub-circuitry for PV application under LLC converter category, which is a popular and effective solution for renewable energy dc-dc power conversion. First, the research background is studied, which lays the ground for the utilization of LLC converter for PV application. Then the topology under study is presented in detail. In this work, the foundation of variation is based on secondary resonant full bridge LLC converter. For verification of functionality, the step-by-step operational breakdown are listed for the two verification proposed of different secondary topology. The efficiency analysis and performance verification are conducted on the given circuitry. Then the analog testing board is built and tested while the result agrees with the analysis. A few additional topics regarding detail of the system is discussed at more length. One is the magnetic component design, which is the key part for stable and efficient system operation; another is the parasitic effect, as at such high frequency and efficiency range, the parasitic effect become significant for the circuit performance.

High power multi-level converters are deemed as the mainstay power conversion technology for renewable energy systems including the battery storage system, PV farm and electrical vehicle charge station. This thesis is focused on the study of three-level DC/DC converter with multi-phase interleaved structure, with coupled and integrated magnetics to achieve high power density. The proposed interleaved phased legs offer the benefit of output current ripple reduction, while inversed coupled inductors can suppress the circulating current between phase legs. Compared with conventional non-interleaving three-level DC/DC converter with non-coupling inductors, both inductor current ripple and output current ripple are largely reduced by interleaving with inverse-coupled inductors. Because of the non-linearity of the inductor coupling, the equivalent circuit model is developed for the proposed interleaving structure. The model identifies the existence of multiple equivalent inductances during one switching cycle. A combination of them determines the inductor current ripple and dynamics of the system. By virtue of inverse coupling and means of controlling the coupling coefficients, one can minimize the current ripple and the unwanted circulating current. To further reduce the magnetic volume, the four inductors in two-phase three-level DC/DC converter are integrated into one common structure, incorporating the negative coupling effects. The integrated magnetic structure can effectively suppress the circulating current and reduce the inductor current ripple and it is easy to manufacture. This thesis provides an equivalent circuit model to facilitate the design optimization of the integrated system. A prototype of integrated coupled inductors is assembled with nano-crystalline C-C core and powder block core. It is tested with both impedance analyzer and single pulse tester, to guarantee proper mutual inductance for inductor current ripple and output current ripple target. With a two-phase three-level DC/DC converter hardware, the concept of integrated coupled inductors is verified, showing its good performance in high-voltage, high-power conversion applications. / Master of Science / With the demanding energy consumption globally, there is an increasing trend for the requirement of high efficiency power converters with high power density. The application for renewable energies including the PV farm, battery storage system and electrical vehicle become more and more important for the sustainable development of society. High-power, high-voltage DC/DC converters can fulfill the role for such renewable energy power conversion. In this paper, a multi-phase multi-level DC/DC converter solution suitable for high-power, high-voltage application is analyzed and designed. With the techniques including interleaving operation and inverse coupled inductors, the power density for the power conversion is increased while keeping a high system efficiency. The discussed power converter in this thesis demonstrated a solution for high-power, highvoltage DC/DC power conversion with high efficiency. And the concept is verified with real hardware experimental results, showing its good performance for a 200kW power conversion system.

Avec l’apparition des systèmes PV en toiture et des véhicules électriques, le nouveau contexte énergétique au sein du bâtiment pose, sous un nouvel angle, la question de la distribution en courant continu au sein des bâtiments. Mais comment évaluer objectivement l’intérêt d’un réseau DC ? Dans un contexte où l’énergie et les impacts environnementaux prennent chaque jour plus d’importance, la quantification des performances d’un tel système selon sa seule phase d’usage ne répond pas complètement à la question son impact global. C’est pourquoi nous proposons d’aborder la question via l’éco-dimensionnement des composants constituant ce système. Pour simplifier un problème fondamentalement complexe (multi-critères), nous avons choisi d’effectuer ces dimensionnements sur la base de la minimisation de leur consommation d’énergie primaire sur l’ensemble de leur cycle de vie (pertes + énergie grise = Gross Energy Requirement GER). L’un des objectifs étant d’apporter à la fois une méthodologie mais aussi les premiers éléments qui permettront de déterminer un optimum du niveau de tension d’une distribution en courant continu dans les bâtiments. / Since the development of roof PV systems and electric vehicles, the use of DC distribution for building has to be explored. However, an objective criterion has to be used to evaluate the interest of such distribution. While energy consumption and environmental impact criteria gain in importance, the performance quantification of such system over the use phase is not sufficient to illustrate its whole impact. That’s why we propose to tackle this evaluation through the eco-sizing of distribution component. In order to simplify this complex problem, based on a multi-criterion approach, we propose to size the components based on the minimization of their primary energy consumption over their entire life cycle. The resulting Gross Energy Requirement GER includes the embodied energy and the losses during the use phase. The objectives are to propose a methodology to determine the optimal voltage level for the building DC distribution, and also to illustrate the proposed approach from case studies. This methodology is applied on wiring and DC/DC converters.

La complexité croissante des dispositifs en électronique de puissance nécessite l'intervention de la conception assistée par ordinateur. Le développement de systèmes électriques/électroniques est effectué à l'aide du prototypage virtuel dans lequel les logiciels de simulation sont utilisés pour prédire le comportement des composants. De ce fait, le prototypage virtuel permet une économie de temps et d'argent pour la réalisation de prototypes. La demande croissante d'appareils à faible puissance et à haut rendement a obligé les concepteurs à analyser précisément les pertes de chaque composant constituant du système. Les composants magnétiques constituent une partie importante des appareils en électronique, par conséquent la modélisation précise des matériaux magnétiques est nécessaire afin de prédire leur comportement réaliste dans des conditions de fonctionnement variables selon l'application. Notre travail s'inscrit dans ce contexte et propose un modèle dynamique non linéaire de composants magnétiques pour une utilisation dans des simulateurs de circuits électriques. Ce modèle de composant magnétique inclut le comportement d'hystérésis non linéaire du matériau et permet une modélisation précise des pertes fer et des pertes joule avec de plus la prise en considération des effets thermiques qui, généralement, ne sont pas pris en compte par les modèles existants. Le modèle est basé sur le principe de la séparation des contributions statiques et dynamiques des pertes fer et s'appuie sur la théorie de Bertotti. Le langage de programmation VHDL-AMS est utilisé en raison de sa fonctionnalité de modélisation multidomaines, permettant un couplage avec un modèle thermique. Le modèle de composant magnétique est mis en oeuvre dans le logiciel de simulation de circuit "Simplorer". Il est ensuite testé dans une application de convertisseur de puissance, le convertisseur abaisseur qui permet de fournir une excitation non-conventionnelle. Le modèle est validé pour différents noyaux d'inductances, différentes ondulations de courant et niveaux de charge, différentes températures et une large gamme de fréquence / The increasing complexity of power electronic devices requires the intervention of computer-aided design in electrical engineering. Development of electric/electronic systems nowadays is carried out by the help of virtual prototyping, in which simulation software are used to predict components behavior without investing time and money to build physical prototypes. The increasing demand of low power, high efficiency devices forced designers to precisely analyze losses in each component constituting the system. Magnetic components constitute a major part of electronics devices. Therefore accurate modeling of magnetic materials is mandatory in order to predict their realistic behavior under variable operating conditions. Our work takes place in this context by proposing a non-linear dynamic model of magnetic components for use in circuit simulators. It includes the material nonlinear hysteretic and dynamic behaviors with accurate modeling of winding and core losses in addition to thermal effects that are not taken into account by existing models. The model is based on the principle of separation of static and dynamic contributions as well as Bertotti’s theory. VHDL-AMS is used as a modeling language due to its multi-domain modeling feature, allowing coupling with a thermal model. The magnetic component model is implemented in circuit simulation software “Simplorer” It is then tested in a widely used power converter application, the buck converter, to ensure non conventional excitation. The model is validated for different core inductors, different current ripples, different loads, different temperatures and a wide frequency range

Ce mémoire traite du pilotage de systèmes hybrides de puissance électrique. Les sources principales d’énergie sont un système photovoltaïque et une pile à combustible. Les sources secondaires sont un pack de batteries et un pack de supercondensateurs. Le dimensionnement des sources secondaires est réalisé afin de gérer les transitoires de puissances et de fournir l’appoint d’énergie lorsque celle issue des sources principales est insuffisante. Les sources principales, quant à elles, fournissent l’énergie à la charge en régime permanent. Le contrôle des flux d’énergies et les asservissements de puissance utilisés dans cette thèse sont basés sur le concept de platitude des systèmes différentiels. Ils permettent d’obtenir des propriétés dynamiques élevées en asservissement et en régulation. Le superviseur, permettant de répartir la puissance entre les différents organes de stockage, est réalisé à base de contrôleur flou et assure que les supercondensateurs avec leur convertisseur d’interface sont utilisés comme filtre de puissance et apportent l’énergie en régime transitoire. En revanche, les batteries fournissent ou absorbent l'énergie sur des durées plus longues / This thesis deals with the control of electrical hybrid system. The main sources consist in an association of photovoltaic and fuel cell system. The secondary sources are a bank of batteries and a bank of supercapacitors. The sizing of secondary sources is realized to manage the power during the transient state and provide extra energy when the power of main sources is insufficient in steady state. The main sources provide the essential energy of the electrical hybrid system during steady state. The control of energy flows and power tracking used in this thesis are based on the flatness technique. This control system allows obtaining high dynamic properties in the power tracking and the regulation of system. The supervisor for sharing the power between the different storage devices is realized thanks to a fuzzy logic controller. This controller ensures that the bank of supercapacitors with its interface converter is used as a power filter and provides the energy in transient states. However, the bank of batteries provides or absorbs the energy in longer periods especially during recovery or overload modes

Ce mémoire s'intéresse à l'étude des comportements dynamiques dans les systèmes d'électronique de puissance. La nature des cycles définis par les variables d'état du système peut être établie soit grâce à un diagramme de bifurcation soit grâce aux multiplieurs de Floquet obtenus par le modèle discret du convertisseur. Cependant, pour certaines structures de convertisseur statique, un modèle discret ne peut être obtenu sans introduire de fortes hypothèses. Les bifurcations de type flip (à l'échelle des hautes fréquences) ne peuvent pas être prédites par le modèle moyen alors qu'elles apparaissent dans de nombreux convertisseurs statiques. Une nouvelle formulation d'un modèle moyen continu permettant d'estimer le premier point de bifurcation (flip, Hopf...) a été présentée. La méthodologie proposée a été appliquée à un convertisseur boost, en mode de conduction continu, contrôlé en courant par différents types de contrôleur à fréquence fixe de commutation. Ensuite, ce modèle moyen a été utilisé pour le dimensionnement des paramètres du régulateur de courant associé à un système de filtrage actif. Les résultats obtenus par le modèle proposé ont été validés par simulation numérique ainsi que par des résultats expérimentaux.Les méthodes d'analyse des cycles limites ont été étendues pour étudier la stabilité des réseaux DC lorsque la fréquence de coupure du filtre LC reliant la source de tension avec le convertisseur statique est proche de la fréquence apparente de commutation des convertisseurs utilisés. Différents modèles discrets ont été développés pour pouvoir considérer ou non le caractère échantillonné de la commande des convertisseurs / This thesis discusses the study of dynamic behavior in power electronics systems. The nature of cycles defined by the state variables of the system can be settled either by a bifurcation diagram or by Floquet multipliers obtained from the discrete model of the converter. However, for certain structures of static converters, a discrete model cannot be obtained without introducing large assumptions. The flip bifurcations (fast-scale) cannot be predicted by the averaged model whereas they appear in many statics converters. A new formulation of a continuous averaged model is presented to estimate the first bifurcation point (flip, Hopf ...). The proposed methodology is applied to a boost converter, operated in continuous conduction mode, controlled by different types of fixed frequency switching current controllers. Then, this averaged model is used for the design of the current controller parameters associated with an active filter system. The variables obtained by the proposed model have been validated by numerical simulation and experimental results. Methods of analysis of limit cycles are extended to study the stability of DC networks when the cutoff frequency of the LC filter between the voltage source and the converter is close to the switching frequency of converters. Different discrete-time models have been developed in order to consider whether to use sampled or no-sampled converter control

Cette thèse s'intéresse à l'architecture et à la commande des sources hybrides d'énergie électrique dont la source principale est une pile à combustible et la source auxiliaire un banc de supercondensateurs. Parmi les différentes architectures électroniques de puissance envisageables le choix s'est porté sur un convertisseur isolé multiport réalisé à partir d'un transformateur multienroulement. Chaque élément de ce dispositif (pile à combustible, supercapacités, charge) est connecté à un enroulement par un onduleur de tension. Le contrôle des échanges d'énergie s'effectue par le déphasage entre les ondes de tension délivrées par les onduleurs. L'utilisation de convertisseurs et d'un mode de commande identiques sur chaque port assure le caractère modulaire de l'ensemble. Le modèle du transformateur est établi pour N enroulements. Il est de type polygone ce qui simplifie le calcul des échanges d'énergie entre les ports. Deux méthodes de contrôle de l'ensemble du dispositif sont présentées. La première, classique, utilise un régulateur linéaire pour contrôler la puissance fournie par la pile et la tension de sortie est contrôlée via l'énergie électrostatique stockée dans la capacité de sortie. La limitation de la variation du courant délivré par la pile à combustible est effectuée en limitant la variation de la puissance d'entrée. La deuxième est basée sur le concept de platitude, les variables plates étant l'énergie stockée dans les capacités et les variables de commande les puissances échangées entre la pile et les autres ports. On a déterminé la trajectoire des sortie plates en respectant les différentes contraintes, à savoir la limitation des variation du courant délivré par la pile et la puissance maximale qu'elle délivre ainsi que le courant de charge de la capacité de sortie lors du démarrage. Dans les deux cas, les méthodes de contrôle ont été validées en modes de charge, de surcharge et de récupération par simulation numérique et expérimentalement. Plutôt que d'utiliser un convertisseur 4-port nécessitant le contrôle de 6 échanges entre ports, nous avons choisi d'étudier par simulation la mise en parallèle de deux montages 3-ports connectés sur la même source principale et la même charge. La présence de ces deux convertisseurs permet selon le point de fonctionnement considéré d'optimiser le rendement du dispositif / This thesis deals with architecture and control of hybrid electrical energy sources where the main source is a fuel cell and the auxiliary one, supercapacitors. Among the various possible power electronics architectures, an isolated multi-port converter using a multi winding transformer has been realized. Each element of the device (fuel cell, supercapacitors and load) is connected to one winding by a voltage inverter. The control of energy exchanges is performed by controlling the phase shifts between voltage waveforms delivered by inverters. The use of identical converters and control modes ensures the modular nature of the system. Transformer modeling is performed in general manner for a N-port transformer and the development of a polygon model simplifies the calculation of the energy exchanges between ports. Two control methods are presented. The first method, more conventional, uses a linear regulator to control the power delivered by the fuel cell and the output voltage is controlled via the electrostatic energy stored in the output capacitor. The limitation of the current variation delivered by the fuel cell is performed by limiting the variation of the input power. The second method is based on the concept of flatness. Energies stored in the capacitors are the flat output variables whereas the powers exchanged between the main source and the other ports are the control variables. It was then possible to determine the trajectory of the flat outputs to meet various constraints like the limitation of the current variation delivered by the fuel cell, the fuel cell maximum power, and the current of the output capacitor during startup. Both control methods have been validated in normal, overload and recovery modes by numerical simulation and experimental results. Rather than using a 4-port converter requiring control of six energy exchanges between ports, the paralleling of two 3-port converters connected to the same main source and load using simulation is studied. The presence of these two converters allows optimizing the system efficiency according to the considered operating point