During the 19th century, defence was a major issue in Victoria as indeed it was in other British colonies and the United Kingdom. To help defend themselves, self governing colonies throughout the Empire enlisted local citizens to serve as part time soldiers on a voluntary basis. The Victorian government in 1859 - 60 took a calculated risk in adopting a Volunteer Force to underpin the whole colonial defence scheme, particularly as the military effectiveness of the citizen soldiers was questionable due to the lack of any real discipline within the Force and the part time nature of the military service. Whilst the savings which resulted (from using Volunteers rather than expensive Imperial troops) were spent on building forts and purchasing ordnance to protect Port Phillip Bay, there were other advantages to be gained from the government decision. It harnessed the considerable groundswell of public patriotism and pride in the Empire to ensure the development of a colonial society with strong links to Britain. The Government also linked Volunteering, stability and patriotism together as part of a less obvious agenda for the goldfields. In a period of lingering unrest only a few short years after Eureka, the Volunteers provided a clear indication of government power and yet another sign (along with the judicial system, education, language) of the importance and expanse of British society. Should there be any civil unrest on the goldfields, the local Corps were ideally suited to the role of civil control. On a number of occasions, the Volunteer Corps were called out to maintain law and order. The thesis studies a major group of over 5,100 men on the goldfields over two decades, particularly with regard to their motives for joining the Volunteers and their demographics such as ages, occupations, addresses, activities and the networks between members. By addressing the Corps demographics it is possible to understand the role played by the Volunteers in the development of goldfields society.

Between 1870 and 1901, seventeen officers from the British army were appointed by the governments of the Australian colonies and New Zealand as commanders of their colonial military forces. There has been considerable speculation about the roles of these officers as imperial agents, developing colonial forces as a wartime reserve to imperial forces, but little in depth research. This thesis examines the role of the imperial commandants with an embryonic system of imperial defence and their contribution to the development of the colonial military forces. It is therefore a topic in British imperial history as much as Australian and New Zealand military history. British officers were appointed by colonial governments to overcome a shortfall in professional military expertise but increasingly came to be viewed by successive British administrations as a means of fulfilling an imperial defence agenda. The commandants as ???men-on-the-spot???, however, viewed themselves as independent reformers and got offside with both the imperial and colonial governments. This fact reveals that the commandants occupied a difficult position between the aspirations of London and the reality of the colonies. They certainly brought an imperial perspective to their commands and looked forward to the colonies playing a role on the imperial stage but generally did so in terms of a personal agenda rather than one set by London. This assessment is best demonstrated in the commandants??? independent stance at the outset of the South African War. The practice of appointing British commandants in Australasia was fraught with problems because of an inherent conflict in the goals of the commandants and their colonial governments. It resembles the Canadian experience of the British officers which reveals that the system of imperials military appointments as a whole was flawed. The problem remained that until a sufficient number of colonial officers had the prerequisite professional expertise for high command there was no alternative. The commandants were therefore the beginning rather than the end of a traditional reliance upon British military expertise. The lasting legacy of the commandants for the military forces of Australia and New Zealand was the development of colonial officers, transference of British military traditions, and the encouragement of a colonial military identity premised on the expectation of future participation in defence of the empire. The study provides a major revision to the existing historiography of imperial officers in the colonies, one which concludes that far from being ???imperial agents??? they were largely marching to their own drum.

Throughout history women have shown a willingness to participate actively in the defence of their country, home, and beliefs, and gave lie to the assertion that they were intrinsically less able than men when it came to achieving the ends through violent means. As Western civilization progressed however, women became restricted to ???womanly??? duties and separated from the official military sphere. The power to make war became exclusively men???s. In Australia immigration patterns, geographic features, and a particular historical period combined to create a virulently male dominated society. This was particularly apparent in the armed services. Australia did not allow women to enlist in its defence forces until 1941, a time of unprecedented national peril. Female volunteers were the final option. The Women???s Services were disbanded following World War II and not re-established until the armed forces again could not fulfil their defence commitment. The Royal Australian navy was the last service to permit a female branch, and between 1942 and 1960 the development of the Women???s Royal Australian Naval Service was inhibited by both societal values and attitudes and the traditions and priorities of the Navy.

This thesis examines the origins and development of signals intelligence in the Royal Australian Navy, during the period 1914 to 1945, within the context of an Australian contribution to Imperial defence. In doing so it demonstrates how the development of this capability was shaped by national, Imperial and international forces and events. The thesis thus fills a gap in the historiography of imperial defence and of early twentieth century signals intelligence. It also constitutes a case study of the development of a niche military capability by a small to medium power in the context of great power alliances and major historical events. The thesis is based principally upon the investigation of documents in the Australian, US and UK national archives, some of which have been newly declassified for this purpose. During the First World War the RAN undertook a minor cryptographic effort focused on intercepting and breaking coded messages from the German Pacific Squadron. After the War, and at the request of the RN, the RAN began to develop a signals intelligence capability aimed at the Imperial Japanese Navy. This capability was seen as part of the RAN contribution to Imperial defence. The commitment, made without Australian political approval, would see the RAN conduct two covert intelligence collection operations against the Japanese Mandated Territories. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent defeat of the Western Powers in Asia, the RAN signals intelligence organisation became, as a consequence of agreements between Britain and the USN, part of the USN organisation in the Pacific. At no stage however, was the RAN involved in the discussions which accompanied these arrangements nor did it have any subsequent say in the strategic direction of this capability. As a consequence, when the Pacific War was drawing to a close the future of the RAN's cryptographic organisation came in to question. By the time the Japanese surrendered this issue had still not been resolved. Beyond the history of the origins and development of signals intelligence in the RAN, and of its involvement in the signals intelligence war against Japan, the thesis highlights the importance of committed individuals in small military organisations and how they can greatly influence the success or otherwise of these organisations. The ability of personnel from different nations to work together in signals intelligence is reflective of the functioning of the alliance as a whole. The development of such a niche capability by a small to medium power can have an effect on that nation's standing, in the context of alliance relationships, as it did in this case. As the RAN found however, such capabilities do not provide for automatic access to strategic decision making within an alliance.

自從一九九五年六月李登輝總統訪問美國康乃爾大學（Cornell University）展開「世紀之旅」後，一九九五年下半年中共一連串的軍事演習、對台實施一連串的「文攻武嚇」到一九九六年的台海危機，這一段期間內中共對台政策特別的強硬，有別於中共一再重申的「一國兩制、和平統一」政策，引起了國內對於國家安全的討論與關切，也引發筆者對於探討中華民國國家安全的興趣。 在國際關係中，「安全」（security）是一個基本的概念，也是一個基本的價值。隨著國際政治學的發展，在第二次世界大戰結束後，由於核子武器的出現與冷戰的爆發，在西方國家特別是美國，許多學者開始將安全問題從國際政治研究中分離出來，作為一個次領域（sub-field）做專門研究，這就是安全研究（security study） 。此階段，安全研究的問題主要是指國家安全（National Security），即國家軍事力量的穩定，因此國家安全就是防務或國防的代名詞，保障國家安全是遂成為國家最重要的職責。 冷戰結束後，「安全」的內涵與外延不斷擴大，不再局限於軍事領域，而是逐步延伸到政治、經濟、科技、文化、環境領域，所以學者將其稱為「綜合安全」（Comprehensive Security）。對於安全之研究雖然有國家安全（National Security）、區域安全（Regional Security）、國際安全（International Security）、全球安全（Global Security）、共同安全（Common Security）、集體安全（Collective Security）、合作安全（Cooperative Security）等若干不同的層次，但一般的安全研究仍是以國家為中心，探討國家面臨威脅時，以國家層次的安全，整合各層次的安全關係，了解威脅安全的因素，並謀求解除威脅之道。 據此，國家安全的定義為：「為維持國家長久生存、發展與傳統生活方式，確保領土、主權與國家利益，並提升國家在國際上的地位，保障國民福祉，所採取對抗不安全的措施。」 我國國情特殊，長久以來在中共的敵對威脅下生存、發展，雖然沒有形之於正式文書的「國家安全政策」，但是我國憑藉「反共」與「發展」的策略，以堅定的意志，不僅確保了國家安全，也維持了經濟穩定的成長，創造了舉世公認的經濟奇蹟。冷戰時期的來臨，隨著國際情勢的轉變，將影響國家安全政策的內涵與目標，尤其兩岸互動關係日益密切，在表象上敵對意識漸次模糊，而又無法保證中共不以武力進犯的情況下，建立一套整體的國家安全政策，實為確保國家生存與發展的必要條件，值得重視。無疑地，以現階段而言，中共可能以武力侵犯台澎金馬的行動，是「危害我們國家生存最直接、最嚴重之威脅。」 。換言之，「確保台澎金馬及諸外島安全，與爭取國人生存發展的國際空間」 就成為當前我國國家安全為的首要目標。 不可諱言的，後冷戰時期國際情勢的變遷必將影響我國國家安全政策的內涵與目標，尤其，面對中共武力的威脅，我國對於國家安全的問題應該投入更多的關心和努力。本研究之目的即針對後冷戰時期的中華民國國家安全政策作一評析，將從我國國家安全之環境因素、我國安全威脅對國家安全之衝擊與影響，及主要的政策與作為加以研究，以作為我國修訂國家安全政策的參考與依據，並希望能進一步尋求我國長治久安之道，此為本文的最大目的所在。 目 錄 第一章 緒論 第一節 研究動機與目的……………………………………1 第二節 研究範圍與方法………..………………………..2 第三節 研究限制……………………………………………5 第二章 國家安全概論 第一節 國家安全研究與國家安全的意義…………………7 第二節 威脅國家安全的因素與來源……………………..11 第三節 國家安全政策的內涵……………………………..15 第四節 中華民國國家安全議題…………………………..18 第三章 後冷戰時期中華民國國家安全環境 第一節 後冷戰時期國際安全環境……………………….23 第二節 後冷戰時期亞太地區的安全環境……………….31 第三節 後冷戰時期兩岸關係的發展…………………….43 第四節 後冷戰時期對我國國家安全的影響…………….61 第四章 中華民國國家安全的威脅來源 第一節 中共武力犯台……………………………………..67 第二節 國土分裂：台灣獨立………………………………77 第三節 區域衝突：南海主權衝突…………………………85 第四節 我國安全威脅的評估……………………………..106 第五章 中華民國國家安全的國際保障 第一節 聯合國對中華民國安全的保障……..…………..137 第二節 美國對台海的安全保障.……..…………………154 第三節 美日安保條約與台海安全………………………172 第四節 中華民國國家安全國際保障的評估…………..185 第六章 後冷戰時期中華民國的國家安全政策 第一節 大陸政策…………………………………………187 第二節 外交政策…………………………………………200 第三節 國防政策…………………………………………211 第四節 經濟政策…………………………………………223 第七章 本文結論………………………………………..235 參考書目…………………………………………………..239

Contemporary peacekeeping missions are complex, demanding, and potentially hazardous. There is general agreement that psychological factors are crucial to effective individual and collective performance of the military personnel deployed in support of these missions. This research has examined the human dimensions associated with capability, functioning, and health across the deployment cycle. The aim of this research was to increase understanding of the psychological issues associated with peace support operations at the individual, group, and organisational levels. The study applied precepts of the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) to the context of military deployment on peace support operations. The overarching Human Dimensions of Operations model for this research incorporated stressor, buffer, and outcome components within the multi-level structure of the military organisation and across the stages (pre, peri, post) of deployment. Participants were Canadian and Australian military personnel deployed on Peace Support Operations. The dissertation comprised seven chapters. Chapter One provided an introduction to the psychological challenges posed by peace support operations and the research opportunities these missions afford. The second chapter detailed the methodology and psychometric evaluation of several measurement scales that were developed as part of this research in order to address the unique characteristics of peace support operations. Each of the six scales examined proved to have a meaningful component structure and adequate subscale reliabilities. The third chapter was devoted to an examination of the psychometric properties of a measure of psychological climate factors, the Unit Climate Profile (UCP), which was the cornerstone instrument of this research. The UCP demonstrated a robust, multi-dimensional structure that was conceptually concordant with its theoretical development and design. In addition, the component structure of the UCP changed in meaningful ways according to its level of analysis - individual or group. The next three chapters examined human dimension constructs at different stages of deployment, notably psychological readiness for operations, psychological resilience during deployment, and readjustment following return from deployment. In Chapter Four, the most compelling structural model that examined collective psychological readiness demonstrated that perceptions of readiness at the group level, along with effective senior leadership, could significantly impact morale. The results in Chapter Five revealed that leadership both buffered the immediate impact of stressors, and also fostered meaning and morale, thereby reducing strain. Positive aspects of deployment and the personal meaning assumed to be derived from these experiences were also found to bolster morale significantly during deployment. In Chapter Six, the stressors specific to the postdeployment transition phase, rather than stressors encountered during deployment, had the strongest impact on postdeployment adjustment. Social support and a positive psychological climate in the unit (particularly evidenced by cohesiveness and caring behaviour by proximal leaders) moderated the impact of homecoming stressors. A concluding chapter summarised the dissertation and discussed its practical significance and avenues for the dissemination of its findings. Broadly, the outcomes demonstrated that an understanding of the human factors in military units within the context of the stressors-strain relationship can provide potentially useful information to commanders who want to enhance the well-being, performance, and commitment of Service members deployed on peace support operations. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1331630 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- School of Psychology, 2008

<p>Plant-animal interactions are affected by both abundance and distribution of interacting species and the community context in which they occur. However, the relative importance of these factors is poorly known. I examined the effects of predator host range, environmental factors, host plant populations, plant traits and fruit abortion on the intensity of pre-dispersal seed predation in 46 host populations of the perennial herb <i>Lathyrus vernus</i>. I recorded damage by beetle pre-dispersal seed predators, mainly <i>Apion opeticum </i>and <i>Bruchus atomarius</i> with different host ranges on <i>L. vernus</i> as well as on two additional host plants. Local seed predator population size was mainly influenced by plant population size, current seed production and beetle population size in the previous year, but was not strongly affected by connectivity. The monophagous seed predator was less abundant and had lower densities than the oligophagous. Both predator species had a strong ability to track fluctuations in seed production; intensity of predation increased with relative increases in seed production. Oligophagous predation on<i> L. vernus i</i>ncreased with the abundance of alternative hosts, but presence of<i> L. vernus</i> did not affect predation on alternative hosts. Abundances and trait preferences differed among three co-occurring seed predators, but were also associated with the abundance of the other species. Overall, seed predation influenced selection on flower number. I found clear indications of seed predator offence but no obvious plant defence. The pattern of fruit abortion was associated with reduced plant fitness since the seed predator had an advanced ability to locate fruits with high probability of retention. Taken together, different factors influencing abundance of the seed predator species, different preferences, and context dependent trait selection are likely to result in complex spatio-temporal variation in overall seed losses and trait selection in the common host plant.</p>

<p>The aim of this thesis is to describe and analyse the Swedish policy towards the Korean Conflict 1947–1953. “Swedish policy” means primarily the Swedish Government’s policy, but also the action taken by the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Swedish Defence Staff. </p><p>When the UN treated the issue of Korea in the years before the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 the Swedish government abstained from voting for reasons of principle or legality, namely that the Korean issue belonged to the peace regulations after the Second World War, in which Sweden, as an ex-neutral state, considered that it should not participate. </p><p>During the Korean War 1950–1953 the Swedish government almost consistently and in many different ways supported the US-led coalition in defence of South Korea. Although never officially mentioned, this support was given with considerable uneasiness. This uneasiness stemmed not only from fears that the neutrality policy would be compromised in the eyes of the Soviet Union but also from fears of what the reaction would be like in Sweden. The fear concerned two things: that the public support for Sweden joining the Western alliance would be strengthened, and that there would be negative reactions among their own crack units, who were regarded as neutrality supporters. Certain elements in the policy adopted by the Government have been judged as attempts to try to counteract this. </p><p>Due to its status as non-aligned country without combat troops in Korea Sweden was given a number of assignments of a mediating and bridging nature during the Korean War. The Swedish government had worries that some of those assignments would be expensive and difficult to carry out. But Sweden had an obvious interest in putting an end to the war and the government also realized that the fact that Sweden was given such missions could be used to justify the Swedish policy of neutrality. </p><p>The Korean War broke out quickly and surprisingly and was initially mobile and fluctuating with several dramatic changes in the successes in the field. Throughout the war, also when the warfare had become more static and the armistice negotiations had started, there was a latent threat of escalation towards a major war between East and West. The Swedish foreign and security policy experts in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Defence Staff could not predict the outbreak of the Korean War and all the dramatic shifts, but they had an accurate basic attitude concerning the two superpowers’ desire to avoid a world war and restrict the Korean War to Korea. </p>

<p>Microorganisms, including two fungi, <i>Phytophthora cryptogea</i> and <i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> strain Fo-(IMI 386351), and one bacterium, <i>Pesudomonas</i> sp. strain MF30, were tested for their abilities to stimulate plant defence responses in tomato (<i>Lycopersicon esculentum</i> –L.) and to serve as effective biocontrol agents (<b>Bs</b>). The study included <i>in vivo</i> and <i>in vitro</i> characterization of biological attributes of the microorganisms, pertaining to their abilities to stimulate plant immunity against a fungal pathogen, <i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>lycopersici</i> (Fol), the causal agent of tomato wilt disease. Using <i>Lycopersicon esculentum</i> –L. as a model plant for examining some fundamental elements of the plant-microorganism interaction, the study reveals and clarifies some aspects of the close association and the complexity of such systems.</p><p>For each <b>B</b>, the results revealed a <b>B</b>-distinct plant-microorganism interaction, which included systemic induced resistance (SIR). A phylogenetic analyses of the partial sequences of two Fo-(IMI 386351) genes, a mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA (mtSSU rDNA) and the nuclear translation elongation factor 1α (EF-1α), provided phylogenetic trees confirming that Fo-(IMI 386351) might be a member of Fol or of <i>F. oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>melonis</i>, which have polyphyletic evolutionary origins. RFLP analysis (mtDNA), suggested that Fo-(IMI 386351) probably belongs to Fol. For routine and accurate differentiation between two morphologically indistinguishable <i>F. oxysporum formae speciales</i> strains, <i>F. oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>lycopersici</i> and <i>F. oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>radicis-lycopersici</i>, a molecular method (mtDNA RFLP analysis) was developed, and its usefulness for such differentiation was compared with that of two other methods: isozyme analysis and an osmotic method, revealed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC-spectra of Fo-(IMI 386351) had an extra peak for the two tested fractions, indicating that activation of the observed plant defence mechanism could have been at least partially the result of one of the products of the eliciting microbe. Preliminary results obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry of those fractions suggest that the extra peak probably represents an oligosaccharide, which may have acted as a mobile signal and triggered the plant defence mechanisms.</p><p>We concluded that (1) our three tested microorganisms are able to stimulate plant defence mechanisms by triggering SIR (plant immunity), (2) the complexity and elaborateness of evolved plant-microbe interactions involving plant defence can, at least in some cases, be observed and studied in the laboratory, and (3) molecular tools can be a powerful means for identifying fungal strains and for clarifying their taxonomical relationships.</p>

The cabbage seedpod weevil, Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is an important pest of brassicaceous oilseed crops, especially canola (Brassica napus L. and Brassica rapa L.) in North America and Europe. Application of foliar insecticide is the only method currently employed to control C. obstrictus populations; because this approach is environmentally unsustainable, alternatives including host plant resistance have been explored. White mustard, Sinapis alba L., is resistant to C. obstrictus and was chosen as a potential source of resistance for B. napus oilseed. Interspecific crosses of S. alba x B. napus have produced several lines that are resistant to C. obstrictus feeding and oviposition and yield fewer, lighter-weight weevil larvae that take longer to develop. I investigated potential mechanisms of this resistance, including assessing differences in visual and olfactory cues among resistant and susceptible genotypes, and antixenosis and antibiosis. Determining effects of visual cues associated with host plant resistance required investigation of weevil vision. Deployment strategies for resistant germplasm were assessed to evaluate incorporation of susceptible refugia to promote long-term durability of resistance traits. Results reported in Chapter 2 indicate that the C. obstrictus visual system is apparently trichromatic and incorporates receptors with response maxima near 350, 450, and 550 nm. Modelling indicated that UV light alone reduced weevil responses but the interaction of yellow and UV light increased responses at a threshold reflectance level of UV. Results reported in Chapter 3 indicated that differences in yellow and UV reflectance among host plant flowers influence host selection in C. obstrictus. Results described in Chapter 4 determine differential attraction to the odours of S. alba and B. napus and among resistant and susceptible accessions. Inferences of the identities of glucosinolates found in varying amounts among susceptible and resistant genotypes suggested that 2-phenylethyl glucosinolate influenced attractiveness. Results described in Chapter 5 indicate differences in adult feeding and oviposition preferences among resistant and susceptible genotypes. Oocyte development, larval biomass and larval development time varied among weevils feeding on resistant and susceptible genotypes. Based on results of Chapter 4, 1-methoxy-3-indolylmethyl glucosinolate was implicated as contributing to antixenosis and antibiosis resistance. Results reported in Chapter 6 describe effects of mixed plots of resistant and susceptible genotypes on weevil spatial distribution and oviposition. These results are consistent with associational resistance and attributed to reduced apparency of susceptible plants in mixtures and antixenosis resistance associated with resistant germplasm. / Plant Science