The inference of species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships are fundamental for evolutionary, ecological, and conservation studies. The resolution of species boundaries and the inference of phylogenetic relationships among species are required to define the units of analysis and to find the most closely related units for evaluating alternative models of speciation. I highlight lizards as model organisms for ecological and evolutionary studies, emphasizing their contributions to advances in understanding linkages between phylogeography and speciation. In this dissertation, I focus on the phylogenetic relationships of the lizards in the Liolaemus darwinii group, and the species boundaries of a nested clade within the group, the L. darwinii complex, because of several advantages that make these taxa ideal for phylogeographic studies of speciation. I infer a phylogeny for the L. darwinii group based on DNA sequences of 20 loci (19 nuclear and 1 mitochondrial) using species trees methods that take into account the incongruence among gene trees. I found the minimum number of loci, number of sequences per species, and number of base pairs per locus that should be included in an analysis for an accurate and precise estimate of the species tree. The species tree based on all available data support a clade of closely related species (L. darwinii, L. grosseorum, and L. laurenti) known as the L. darwinii complex. A new method for species delimitation using Approximate Bayesian Computation is introduced and is shown to accurately delimit species given that limited or no gene flow has occurred after divergence and despite biased estimates of demographic parameters. ABC analyses supported the distinctness of two lineages within L. darwinii under a model of speciation with gene flow. Based on the species tree and the species limits obtained in this dissertation, phylogenetic comparative methods can be carried out to address the morphological and ecological evolution in the L. darwinii group and several sister species can be used for testing the alternative speciation models via correlation analyses of genetic, morphological, and ecological datasets. Future studies should assess the role speciation due to adaptive processes and its association the species' ecological niches and life histories.

Magistro baigiamajame darbe nagrinėjama Lietuvos Respublikos ir kaimyninių valstybių sienų raida ir bendra charakteristika, Europos Sąjungos valstybių sienų charakteristika ir demarkavimo ypatumai, Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės sienos delimitavimo, demarkavimo ir apsaugos svarba ir jų reglamentavimas nacionaliniuose, Europos Sąjungos ir kituose teisės aktuose. Atliekamas mokslinis tyrimas ir analizuojamos teisinės ir praktinės Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės sienos demarkavimo problemos, stabdančios demarkavimo darbus ir demarkuotos valstybės sienos linijos įteisinimą, pareikalavusios nemažai papildomų lėšų, o taip pat atsiradę aplinkybės neteisingam valstybės sienos linijos nustatymui. Darbe pateikiami išvados ir pasiūlymai dėl Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės sienos demarkavimo proceso optimizavimo. Tinkamas Lietuvos valstybės sienų nustatymas turi ypatingą reikšmę Lietuvos Respublikos teritorijos vientisumui ir valstybės suverenumui. Siekiant užtikrinti patikimą ir Europos Sąjungos reikalavimus atitinkantį išorės sienų apsaugos lygį, būtina, kad valstybių sienos būtų demarkuotos (nustatytos) ir juridiškai įteisintos. Vienas iš prioritetų, užtikrinant šalies nacionalinį saugumą yra patikima, Europos Sąjungos ir Šengeno šalių reikalavimus atitinkanti valstybės sienos apsauga ir jos kontrolė, ypatingą dėmesį skiriant išorės Europos Sąjungos sienos apsaugos užtikrinimui. Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės siena su Baltarusijos Respublika ir su Rusijos Federacija yra išorės ES sienos... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This master’s thesis analyses the course of development of the border of Lithuania and the neighbouring counties and provides their general characteristics, analyses general characteristics and demarcation peculiarities of the borders of the EU states, the importance of such aspects of Lithuania’s border as its delimitation, demarcation and ensuring of the border security as well as relevant regulations set forth in the national, EU and other legal acts. A scientific research is made in regard to those legal and practical issues of the demarcation of the state border of the Republic of Lithuania, which impede the demarcation works and legalization of the demarcated border line and which make the process additional money consuming, as well as the circumstances of establishing an incorrect state border line. The thesis provides conclusions and proposals in regard to optimization of the border demarcation. A proper determination of the state borders of the Republic of Lithuania is of utmost importance to the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. Demarcation and legitimization of the state border is an obligatory condition ensuring a reliable border security level in compliance with the EU requirements. As regards the national security, one of the priorities is an efficient protection and control of the state borders in conformity with the EU and Schengen requirements, especially those of protection of external EU borders. Due to the fact that Lithuania’s... [to full text]

As fronteiras não acabaram como foi preconizado apressadamente na década de 1990. Elas se constituem de processos histórica e geograficamente dinâmicos. Os tipos, características e significados de fronteiras e limites se transformam ao longo dos tempos e se manifestam de diferentes formas em cada lugar e período onde ocorrem. Para além das características geográficas básicas, as fronteiras marítimas e terrestres do território brasileiro foram constituídas por diversos e distintos processos. As disputas territoriais seculares, que perpassaram períodos históricos desde os tempos coloniais, culminaram no processo de estabelecimento de fato das fronteiras terrestres brasileiras apenas no século XX. Hoje, já consolidadas, suas novas significações descartam sua função original ligada à expansão territorial, mas mantém uma outra, a de defesa, mesmo que sob novas formas de atuação. Atualmente, se verificam em diversos pontos dessas fronteiras, variados processos de ocupação, de interação internacional e de integração local, regional e nacional. Nas fronteiras marítimas do Brasil, percebe-se simultaneamente a dinâmica expansiva e a ocupação por exploração e por defesa. A origem desse processo se encontra no pós Segunda Guerra Mundial, quando os países costeiros dispararam, a partir de ação unilateral dos Estados Unidos, o processo de territorialização das águas marítimas que encerraram, ou ao menos limitaram a visão dos mares e oceanos inteiramente internacionalizados. Foram instituídas, no âmbito da ONU, faixas de soberania e de direitos de soberania aos países costeiros mar adentro. Seus processos de delimitação se tornaram foco geopolítico mediados por normatizações internacionais, cujas aplicações se encontram, ainda, em processo de estabelecimento. É o caso das fronteiras marítimas do Brasil que, em 2007, conseguiu referendar na ONU parte de suas requisições de expansão de suas águas jurisdicionais onde exerce direitos de soberania. / The borderlands haven\'t disappeared as it was headlessly proclaimed last decade. They are constituted by historic and geographical dynamic processes. Types, characteristics and meanings of borderlands and boundaries are transformed along the time and manifest themselves in different ways every place and moment they occur. Besides the basic geographic characteristics, sea and terrestrial boundaries of Brazilian territory have been constituted by several different processes. The territorial disputes that have been happening over the last centuries, passed by historical periods since colonial times, and culminated in the process of establishment of Brazilian territorial borderlands only during 20th century. Today, already consolidated, its new significations reject its original function linked to territorial expansion, but keep another one, which is the defense, even though under new ways of acting. Nowadays, in several places of these borderlands, different occupation processes of international interaction and local, regional and national integration are verified. In the maritime boundaries of Brazil, it is noticed simultaneously, the expansive dynamics and the occupation by exploration and defense. The origin of this process is found in post-World War II, when coastal countries trigged, from a unilateral act of the United States, the sea waters territorialization process that ended, or at least limited the idea of seas and oceans totally internationalized. It has been instituted, within the ambit of United Nations, ocean belts of sovereignty and rights of coastal countries. Their processes of delimitation have become geopolitical focus mediated by international normative acts, whose applications are still in process of establishment. That is the case of maritime boundaries of Brazil which, in 2007, managed to obtain part of its requests related to expansion of waters under its jurisdiction where the country has rights of sovereignty.

O presente trabalho tem, como objetivo principal, apresentar uma proposta metodológica para a delimitação territorial de municípios. A questão fronteiriça, aparentemente irrelevante em um mundo cada vez mais integrado, classificado por muitos como um mundo sem fronteiras, mostra-se, na verdade, cada vez mais presente, dentro de uma fragmentação permanente do espaço geográfico em diversas unidades políticas. Dentro disto, os limites territoriais internos, primordialmente os de caráter municipal, apresentam grande importância na vida cotidiana de todos os indivíduos. São estas linhas que determinam a localização de eleitores, a implantação de escolas, atendimentos em postos de saúde, entregas de correspondências, implantação de linhas telefônicas, cadastramentos pra fins escolares, recolhimento de lixo, pesquisa para censos demográficos, abastecimento de água e luz, melhoramentos em vias de acesso, entre outros. Dada tamanha importância, espera-se que os mesmos tenham suas definições baseadas em critérios concretos e coerentes. A análise dos limites municipais brasileiros demonstra, entretanto, uma situação distante da ideal. Enquanto parâmetros populacionais, econômicos e eleitorais são discutidos como requisitos mínimos para a criação de municípios, elementos territoriais acabam sendo relegados. O evidente contraste entre territórios demasiadamente extensos ao lado de pequenas áreas municipais em conjunto com formas das mais variadas possíveis, permite afirmar que, em meio a total permissibilidade de atuação técnica e política, não há critérios consistentes estabelecidos para a definição das linhas limítrofes. Dentre os inúmeros problemas gerados pelas delimitações inconsistentes, destaca-se a questão da posição do limite em relação às sedes municipais dos municípios confrontantes. O posicionamento desequilibrado da referida linha pode gerar situações em que determinada população, apesar de residir oficialmente em um município, usufrui dos serviços públicos de outro. Nestes casos, podemos considerar duas áreas territoriais municipais distintas a jurídica, definida por lei, e a real, efetivada na realidade. Neste contexto, propõe-se a consideração da distância como elemento central para a análise territorial. Levando em consideração que um indivíduo, localizado entre duas sedes municipais, ao necessitar de algum serviço público oferecido em ambas, tende a se deslocar para a mais próxima e, que o referido deslocamento se dá primordialmente através das vias de acesso (rodovias, estradas, caminhos, etc.), conclui-se que a adoção da simples distância euclidiana não é satisfatória, devendo ser substituída pela distância viária, primordialmente medida pelo tempo de viagem. Desta forma, eis a premissa da pesquisa: o território municipal deve corresponder a sua respectiva área de influência, definida pelo conjunto dos pontos mais próximos (considerando o menor tempo de viagem necessário) de sua sede em relação às sedes do entorno. / This work has as main objective to present a methodology for territorial delimitation of municipalities. The border issue, apparently irrelevant in an increasingly integrated world, rated by many as a \"borderless world\", it is shown, in fact, increasingly present, in a permanent fragmentation of geographic space in various political units. Within this, the internal boundaries, primarily the municipal boundaries, have major importance in everyday life of all individuals. These are lines that determine the location of voters, the deployment of schools, attendance at public health clinics, delivery of correspondence, implementation of telephone lines, registrations for school purposes, garbage collection, search for demographic censuses, supply water and light, improvements in access roads, among others. Given such importance, it is expected that they have their settings based on specific and consistent criteria. The analysis of the Brazilian municipal boundaries demonstrates, however, a distant ideal situation. While population, economic and electoral parameters are discussed as minimum requirements for the creation of municipalities, territorial elements end up being relegated. The stark contrast between too extensive territories side of small municipal areas together with the most diverse forms, have shown that, amid all permissibility of technical expertise and policy, there is no consistent criteria for defining the boundary line. Among the numerous problems caused by inconsistent boundaries, there is the issue of position limits in relation to the municipal headquarters of the bordering municipalities. The \"unbalanced\" position of that line can lead to situations where certain population, although living officially in municipality, enjoys the public services of another. In these cases, we can consider two different municipal territorial areas - legal, defined by law, and the real, effective in reality. In this context, it is proposed to consider the distance as a central element for territorial analysis. Assuming an individual, located between two municipal centers, to require some public service offered in both, tends to move to the closest and that displacement occurs primarily through the access roads (highways, streets, paths, etc.), it is concluded that the adoption of simple Euclidean distance is not satisfactory and should be replaced by the road distance, primarily measured by travel time. Thus, this is the premise of the research: the municipality must correspond to their respective area of influence defined by the set of closest points (considering the lowest travel time required) from its headquarters in relation to the surrounding headquarters.

Les écosystèmes des eaux souterraines sont de plus en plus reconnus pour leur faune endémique, phylogénétiquement ancienne et écologiquement spécialisée. Avec plus de 425 espèces décrites, les amphipodes niphargidés constituent la famille des eaux souterraines la plus riche en espèces au monde et un système modèle intéressant pour la biologie de l'évolution. Cependant, les scientifiques doivent faire face à des données incomplètes et biaisées en raison de trois déficits majeurs: le déficit Linnéen pour la taxonomie, le déficit Darwinien pour la phylogénie, et le déficit Wallacien pour la biogéographie. La présente thèse vise à évaluer l'importance de ces déficits chez les niphargidés, ouvrant ainsi la voie pour y remédier. Le premier chapitre est une évaluation des effets de la découverte d'espèces cryptiques (une des causes du déficit Linnéen) sur notre compréhension des modèles de distribution à grande échelle de la diversité des niphargidés. Contrairement à ce que l'on attendait, les espèces cryptiques putatives sont réparties de manière homogène le long des gradients environnementaux, et leur découverte ne modifie donc pas notre compréhension des modèles de distribution. Le deuxième chapitre analyse l'importance de l'application des techniques moléculaires à la taxonomie des niphargidés. En étudiant le genre Microniphargus, la morphologie seule s'est avérée peu informative en raison de la pédomorphose et de l'homoplasie. L'utilisation de marqueurs ADN a permis d'attribuer le genre à une famille différente (Pseudoniphargidae), venant éclaircir les relations phylogénétiques au sein des Niphargidae (et contribuant ainsi à remédier au déficit Darwinien). Le troisième chapitre traite du rôle des régressions et transgressions marines sur la distribution des niphargidés en utilisant la biogéographie moléculaire et une modélisation biogéographique innovante (afin de remédier au déficit Wallacien). Les résultats soutiennent l'idée que la dispersion a joué un rôle essentiel dans la biogéographie historique des niphargidés, en montrant que leurs voies de dispersion sont corrélées à des événements paléogéographiques anciens. Enfin, le quatrième chapitre traite de la taxonomie, de la phylogénie et de la biogéographie d'un clade de niphargidés distribué dans la région des Alpes et des Carpates, et illustre un cas de discordance mitonucléaire dans la délimitation d'espèces vivant dans des zones affectées par les glaciations quaternaires. Une histoire complexe de divergence de lignées évolutives et de contacts secondaires pendant les fluctuations climatiques du Pléistocène explique la plus grande variabilité de l'ADN mitochondrial par rapport aux marqueurs nucléaires. Dans une telle situation, la description formelle d'espèces cryptiques basée sur le seul barcodage de l'ADN mitochondrial, comme dans certains articles récents sur les niphargidés, n'est pas recommandée. Cette thèse ouvre plusieurs perspectives pour des recherches futures basées sur la taxonomie intégrative et la modélisation biogéographique, permettant aux niphargidés très diversifiés de jouer un rôle majeur dans la surveillance des écosystèmes des eaux souterraines. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The cosmopolitan echiniscid genus Hypechiniscus contains exclusively rare species. In this contribution, by combining statistical morphometry and molecular phylogeny, we present qualitative and quantitative aspects of Hypechiniscus diversity, which remained hidden under the two purportedly cosmopolitan species: H. gladiator and H. exarmatus. A neotype is designated for H. gladiator from Creag Meagaidh (Scotland), and an informal re-description is provided for H. exarmatus based on animals from Creag Meagaidh and the Isle of Skye (Inner Hebrides). Subspecies/forms of H. gladiator are suppressed due to the high developmental variability of the cirrus dorsalis. At the same time, four species of the genus are described: H. daedalus sp. nov. from Roan Mountain and the Great Smoky Mountains (Southern Appalachian Mountains, USA), H. flavus sp. nov. and H. geminus sp. nov. from the Yatsugatake Mountains (Honshu, Japan), and H. cataractus sp. nov. from the Malay Archipelago (Borneo and the Moluccas). Dorsal and ventral sculpturing, together with morphometric traits, are shown to be the key characters that allow for the phenotypic discrimination of species within the genus. Furthermore, the morphology of Hypechiniscus is discussed and compared to that of the most similar genera, Pseudechiniscus and Stellariscus. Finally, a diagnostic key to all recognized Hypechiniscus species is provided.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24457号 / 理博第4956号 / 新制||理||1707(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 中野 隆文, 教授 本川 雅治, 教授 森 哲 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

I constructed a best estimate phylogeny based on congruence of multiple data sources. In recent years molecular data has been used both to construct phylogenies of taxonomic groups and to aid in the delimitation of new species. I generated and analyzed sequence data for forest spiny pocket mice (Genus Heteromys) for the mitochondrial gene cyt b (1143 bp) and two nuclear gene segments MYH2 (252 bp) and EN2 (189 bp). I used maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses to infer relationships among species and to provide a framework for using a species delimitation method to investigate the possibility of multiple species within the widespread Heteromys desmarestianus. I found several well-supported lineages within the H.desmarestianus complex, including H. goldmani and H. oresterus. Incorporating karyotype and allozyme data from earlier studies, I found sufficient supporting evidence to justify maintaining H. goldmani and H. oresterus as species as well as identifying four lineages as candidate species. I present a revised taxonomic arrangement within the genus; the subgenus Heteromys should be divided into three species groups: anomalus (H. anomalus and H. australis), gaumeri (H. gaumeri), and desmarestianus (H. desmarestianus, H. goldmani, H. oresterus, and the four candidate species).

Dès le premier arrêt rendu en matière de délimitation du plateau continental et de la zone économique exclusive, la jurisprudence internationale se fonde sur le concept de l’équité en vue de tracer les frontières maritimes. Elle a progressivement développé des règles gouvernant la délimitation maritime équitable et qui peuvent être classées en quatre catégories de normes, qui sont la norme fondamentale requérant la recherche d’un résultat équitable, les principes équitables, les méthodes de délimitation maritime et les circonstances pertinentes qui permettent d’adapter une ligne de délimitation provisoirement arrêtée aux circonstances de l’espèce. Ces règles devraient toutes contribuer à l’obtention d’un résultat équitable.Les règles visées ont peu à peu accédé à la normativité, ce qui permet de distinguer entre quatre degrés de normativité dans l’évolution du droit relatif à la délimitation maritime équitable. Au degré zéro de normativité, le droit était réduit à la norme fondamentale et, par la suite, les principes équitables et les méthodes de délimitation ont accédé à la normativité. Leur normativisation permet de distinguer entre les degrés premier et deuxième de normativité. Le degré supérieur de normativité serait qualifié par la normativité de tous les facteurs de délimitation, y compris les circonstances pertinentes.La détermination de ces règles se fonde sur l’idée d’équité. Comme cette équité est requise par la norme fondamentale, il faut parler d’une équité juridique. Elle est un moyen autonome qui permet de compléter le droit de la délimitation maritime. Avec le développement progressif de ce droit, l’équité juridique (aequitas iuridicia) perd en influence et est remplacée par l’équité qui est une composante des normes (aequitas elementum iuris). Cette dernière dirige l’interprétation des normes de délimitation en vue de parvenir à un résultat équitable. Une pratique jurisprudentielle abondante a contribué à cette évolution qui se caractérise par la mise à l’écart de l’équité juridique. / Since the first decision related to the delimitation of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone, the international jurisprudence is founded on the concept of equity. The international jurisprudence has progressively developed rules governing the equitable maritime delimitation, which can be classified in four categories of norms: the fundamental norm requiring the adoption of an equitable result, equitable principles, delimitation methods and relevant circumstances that contribute to adapt the provisional delimitation line on the concrete circumstances of the case. All those rules should contribute to the adoption of an equitable result.The rules mentioned above acceded progressively on normativity, which permits to distinguish four degrees of normativity in the evolution of the law applicable on equitable maritime delimitation. On degree zero of normativity, law was reduced on the fundamental norm and, thereafter, equitable principles and delimitation acceded on normativity. Their normativisation permits to distinguish between the first and the second degree of normativity. The superior degree of normativity is qualified by the normativity of all delimitation factors, even the relevant circumstances.The determination of these rules is based on the idea of equity. As the fundamental norm requires this equity, it should be called juridical equity. It is an autonomous tool, which completes the law applicable on maritime delimitation. Through the progressive development of the law, juridical equity (aequitas iuridicia) looses its influence and is replaced by equity that is a part of the norms (aequitas elementum iuris). This one guides the interpretation of the delimitation norms in order to obtain an equitable result. An abundant juridical practice has contributed to this evolution characterised by the rejection of juridical equity.

The tension between the Equidistance-Special Circumstances rule (articulated in the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf) and the Equitable Principles-Relevant Circumstances rule (declared in the 1969 North Sea Continental Shelf cases of the International Court of Justice) prevented the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea from stipulating a specific method for the delimitation of the EEZ or the continental shelf. For this reason, the role or status in maritime delimitation of the equidistance method, equitable principles, and relevant circumstances must generally be determined by reviewing the decisions of international courts and tribunals. The equidistance method has been employed in international case-law as a means of constructing a ‘provisional’ line. Analysis of international case-law also shows that the current rule governing maritime delimitation is the ‘achievement of an equitable solution’ in and of itself. The concept of equity in maritime delimitation is therefore only relevant to the equitability of the ‘result’ to be reached. Thus, the argument that equitable principles applicable to the examination of relevant circumstances are ascertainable and meaningful in maritime delimitation should be dismissed. Guaranteeing the equitability of principles or processes does not necessarily lead to the achievement of an equitable result. The remaining concept of significance to the delimitation process is that of ‘relevant circumstances’, which must be taken into account in order to reach an equitable result. The patterns or processes involved when the delimitation rule is applied by taking account of relevant circumstances are not predictable. The achievement of an equitable solution in maritime delimitation is preceded by the flexible consideration of relevant circumstances. The increasing importance of relevant circumstances to the delimitation of maritime boundaries is proven by two practical instances. One is the establishment of a single maritime boundary, which constitutes one typical maritime boundary; the other is the delimitation of the outer continental shelf, which has recently been included in international case-law. In brief, this thesis will show how best to arrive at an equitable solution by drawing attention to the demise of equitable principles and the dominant role of relevant circumstances. The clarification of taking into account relevant circumstances enables us more clearly to understand what is entailed in the task of achieving an equitable solution.