Bei der Auslegung und Überprüfung der Betriebsweise von Fernwärmesystemen (FWS) ist eine Analyse der gesamten Prozesskette eines FWS – Erzeugung, Verteilung und Übergabe – notwendig, um eine bestmögliche Gestaltung derselben zu erreichen. Einen Ansatz zur Optimierung der Betriebsweise bietet die Modifikation des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus, dem in der Fernwärmebranche bezüglich der Wirtschaftlichkeit des Gesamtsystems eine große Bedeutung beigemessen wird. Allgemeingültige Aussagen zur Höhe dieses Einflusses lassen sich aufgrund der unterschiedlich gestalteten FWS, insbesondere für Teillastbedingungen, nicht treffen. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt den Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus auf die Effizienz thermodynamischer Prozesse in Anlagen der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK-Anlagen) mit Dampfturbinen sowie auf den Transportaufwand des Fernwärmewassers. Zu diesem Zweck werden die Grundlagen und der Stand des Wissens sowie wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen den Optimierungsstrategien und dem Fernwärmetemperaturniveau formuliert. Zur Ermittlung des elektrischen Eigenbedarfs für den Transport des Fernwärmewassers wird eine hydraulische Untersuchung vorgestellt und anhand unterschiedlicher Wärmenetzstrukturen diskutiert. Für die weitere Analyse von KWK-Anlagen mit Dampfturbinen werden methodische Hinweise und Grundlagen zur Modellierung ausgearbeitet, die anschließend auf real existierende typische KWK-Anlagen angewendet werden. Dies sind eine Gegendruckanlage, ein Kombikraftwerk und eine Entnahme-Kondensations-Anlage. Zur Modellüberprüfung werden Mess- und Simulationswerte von ausgewählten Lastgängen sowie für den gesamten Lastbereich gegenübergestellt. Zur Bewertung der Energieeffizienz von FWS unter Berücksichtigung des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus werden zwei Methoden abgeleitet. Eine differentielle, auf den Lastpunkt bezogene Bewertung mittels temperaturabhängiger Kraftwerkskennlinien und eine integrative Bewertung, bei der unterschiedliche Betriebsweisen über einen definierten Zeitraum einbezogen werden. An ausführlichen Beispielen werden deren Anwendung und Eignung sowie der Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus diskutiert. Abschließend wird die Wirtschaftlichkeit von 3 ausgewählten Maßnahmen durch Anwendung der integrativen Bewertung vorgestellt. / In order to achieve the best possible end-to-end design of a district heating system, any dimensioning and examining of operating regimes of district heating systems requires an analysis of the entire process chain ranging from generation via distribution to heat delivery. One of the options to optimise an operating regime is to modify the district heating temperature level, a parameter to which great importance is attached in the district heating industry with a view to the economics of the overall system. The differences in the design of district heating systems do not allow issuing any universally valid statements on how strong this influence is, especially for conditions of part load. The present paper looks into the influence of the district heating temperature level on the efficiency of thermodynamic processes in combined heat and power (CHP) plants using steam turbines, and on the expenditure of district heating water transport. For this purpose, it states the fundamentals and current level of knowledge, as well as important connections between the optimisation strategies used and the district heating temperature level. In view of calculating the auxiliary power required to transport district heating water, a hydraulic analysis will be presented and discussed, with several different structures of district heating systems being used for illustration. For a more advanced analysis of CHP plants using steam turbines, methodological information and modelling basics will be described and then applied to typical CHP plants existing in reality. These are a backpressure plant, a combined-cycle gas turbine plant and an extraction condensing plant. To validate the model, measured and simulated data of selected load cycles as well as the entire load range will be compared. Two methods of assessing the energy efficiency of district heating systems in consideration of the district heating temperature level will be derived: a differential assessment related to the duty point and using temperature-dependent power plant characteristic curves, and an integrative assessment where several different operating regimes are included over a pre-defined period of time. Detailed examples will be discussed to illustrate the application and suitability of these assessments as well as the influence of the district heating temperature level. Finally, the economics of selected steps applying the integrative assessment will be highlighted.

As rails are vital parts of a track system, it is essential to ensure their safe and reliable operation. The present verification approaches and limit values regarding the permissible additional stresses of the rail under compression and tension considering track-bridge-interaction (TBI) were developed in the 1980s. However, with the rapid development of the railway industry and the increasing of train speeds, rail infrastructures are subjected to ever more frequent, greater loads and more complicated loading conditions, especially in the area of bridges. Moreover, the manufacturing technologies of railway components have been further developed. Taking all the aforementioned variations into account, the current verification approaches and limit values do not apply properly today and shall be updated. For this purpose, new investigations are carried out in this dissertation. As major parts of this cumulative dissertation, the published investigations are divided into three main blocks. The first block is the state of the art. In this block, a detailed background knowledge and a state of the art description of the permissible additional stresses in railway tracks due to TBI are given. Furthermore, the motivation for the studies within the scope of this dissertation is addressed. The second block deals with the rail resistance under compressive forces in ballastless track systems. Accordingly, numerical investigations on the behaviour of rails in ballastless track systems under compressive axial forces in the vicinity of bridge joints were performed. Experimental tests were also carried out on two 8.17 m long rails fixed with BSPFF-B-1 and SBS300-1 fasteners on the ÖBB-Porr slab track system. It was found that the rail resistance under longitudinal compressive loads can be largely increased. The third block focuses on the rail resistance under tension. First, extensive experiments were conducted on rail behaviour for up to five million cyclic loads in both vertical and transverse directions under different minimum stress levels. Subsequently, the sectioning method and the X-Ray diffraction method were applied to determine the residual stress distribution in the rail. Afterwards, the determined residual stress results and the fatigue test results are analysed together. As a result, a new comprehensive Smith-diagram, which took into account the actual rail residual stresses, up to five million load cycles in both vertical and transverse directions of the rail, was achieved. In addition, two studies are supplemented. One deals with the fatigue behaviour of rails for up to 50 million load cycles and the other concerns the fatigue behaviour of rails from a different batch for up to five million load cycles. Based on all these aforementioned investigations, it is concluded that the current limit values and approaches regarding the rail resistance in ballastless track systems under compression and tension considering TBI are too conservative. In the end, new verification approaches and limit values are proposed.

Bei der Auslegung und Überprüfung der Betriebsweise von Fernwärmesystemen (FWS) ist eine Analyse der gesamten Prozesskette eines FWS – Erzeugung, Verteilung und Übergabe – notwendig, um eine bestmögliche Gestaltung derselben zu erreichen. Einen Ansatz zur Optimierung der Betriebsweise bietet die Modifikation des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus, dem in der Fernwärmebranche bezüglich der Wirtschaftlichkeit des Gesamtsystems eine große Bedeutung beigemessen wird. Allgemeingültige Aussagen zur Höhe dieses Einflusses lassen sich aufgrund der unterschiedlich gestalteten FWS, insbesondere für Teillastbedingungen, nicht treffen. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt den Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus auf die Effizienz thermodynamischer Prozesse in Anlagen der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK-Anlagen) mit Dampfturbinen sowie auf den Transportaufwand des Fernwärmewassers. Zu diesem Zweck werden die Grundlagen und der Stand des Wissens sowie wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen den Optimierungsstrategien und dem Fernwärmetemperaturniveau formuliert. Zur Ermittlung des elektrischen Eigenbedarfs für den Transport des Fernwärmewassers wird eine hydraulische Untersuchung vorgestellt und anhand unterschiedlicher Wärmenetzstrukturen diskutiert. Für die weitere Analyse von KWK-Anlagen mit Dampfturbinen werden methodische Hinweise und Grundlagen zur Modellierung ausgearbeitet, die anschließend auf real existierende typische KWK-Anlagen angewendet werden. Dies sind eine Gegendruckanlage, ein Kombikraftwerk und eine Entnahme-Kondensations-Anlage. Zur Modellüberprüfung werden Mess- und Simulationswerte von ausgewählten Lastgängen sowie für den gesamten Lastbereich gegenübergestellt. Zur Bewertung der Energieeffizienz von FWS unter Berücksichtigung des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus werden zwei Methoden abgeleitet. Eine differentielle, auf den Lastpunkt bezogene Bewertung mittels temperaturabhängiger Kraftwerkskennlinien und eine integrative Bewertung, bei der unterschiedliche Betriebsweisen über einen definierten Zeitraum einbezogen werden. An ausführlichen Beispielen werden deren Anwendung und Eignung sowie der Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus diskutiert. Abschließend wird die Wirtschaftlichkeit von 3 ausgewählten Maßnahmen durch Anwendung der integrativen Bewertung vorgestellt. / In order to achieve the best possible end-to-end design of a district heating system, any dimensioning and examining of operating regimes of district heating systems requires an analysis of the entire process chain ranging from generation via distribution to heat delivery. One of the options to optimise an operating regime is to modify the district heating temperature level, a parameter to which great importance is attached in the district heating industry with a view to the economics of the overall system. The differences in the design of district heating systems do not allow issuing any universally valid statements on how strong this influence is, especially for conditions of part load. The present paper looks into the influence of the district heating temperature level on the efficiency of thermodynamic processes in combined heat and power (CHP) plants using steam turbines, and on the expenditure of district heating water transport. For this purpose, it states the fundamentals and current level of knowledge, as well as important connections between the optimisation strategies used and the district heating temperature level. In view of calculating the auxiliary power required to transport district heating water, a hydraulic analysis will be presented and discussed, with several different structures of district heating systems being used for illustration. For a more advanced analysis of CHP plants using steam turbines, methodological information and modelling basics will be described and then applied to typical CHP plants existing in reality. These are a backpressure plant, a combined-cycle gas turbine plant and an extraction condensing plant. To validate the model, measured and simulated data of selected load cycles as well as the entire load range will be compared. Two methods of assessing the energy efficiency of district heating systems in consideration of the district heating temperature level will be derived: a differential assessment related to the duty point and using temperature-dependent power plant characteristic curves, and an integrative assessment where several different operating regimes are included over a pre-defined period of time. Detailed examples will be discussed to illustrate the application and suitability of these assessments as well as the influence of the district heating temperature level. Finally, the economics of selected steps applying the integrative assessment will be highlighted.

Vietnam has fundamental advantages to implement the wind power project. Because of being surrounded by sea areas, wind power projects in Vietnam have a promise future. However, implementing an ecotechnic analysis of a wind power project has a fairly challenge because of seasonal change as well as input data’s fluctuation. The paper presented a method based on Matlab programming utilized for ecotechnic analysis the wind power projects. The math diagram built with the consideration of all input data’s changing will be shown to make the ecotechnic analysis easier and faster. The results deducted from Matlab programming will be compared with ones made by expertise method. The conclusion about advantages of method is pointed out to help project managers have another choice in making ecotechnic analysis of wind power project. / Việt Nam có những thuận lợi cơ bản để thực thu các dự án điện gió. Do đặc điểm địa lý, bao quanh bởi khá nhiều các vùng biển, các dự án điện gió của Việt Nam có tính khả thi và một tương lai đầy hứa hẹn. Tuy vậy, thực thi các phân tích kinh tế kỹ thuật của một dự án điện gió có thách thức không nhỏ bởi những thay đổi của yếu tố mùa cũng như những thay đổi của các yếu tố đầu vào. Bài báo giới thiệu một phương pháp dựa vào quá trình lập trình trên Matlab, ứng dụng để phân tích kinh tế kỹ thuật các dự án điện gió. Lưu đồ thuật toán được xây dựng có xem xét đến sự thay đổi của các yếu tố đầu vào sẽ giúp quá trình phân tích nhanh hơn và dễ dàng hơn. Các kết quả thu được sẽ được so sánh với các kết quả được tiến hành theo phương pháp chuyên gia. Kết luận về những ưu điểm của phương pháp cũng được đưa ra để giúp các nhà quản lý các dự án điện gió có được lựa chọn nữa trong tiến hành phân tích kinh tế kỹ thuật các dự án điện gió.

Kinetic inactivation of factor XIIIa and MTG were performed in a pressure range from 0.1 to 400 MPa at 40°C within a time from 0 to 60 min in a TRIS-acetate buffer at pH 6.0. The inactivation of both enzymes at these conditions followed a first order reaction model. The high inactivation rate constant of 26.6 x10-3/min-1 for factor XIIIa at low pressure (50 MP) indicated that this enzyme is much easier to inactivate than MTG, which achieved an inactivation rate constant value of 9.7 x10-3/min at higher pressure (200 MPa). An inactivation volume of –10.17±0.5 cm3/mol confirmed that MTG is very stable under high pressure. The stability of MTG under high pressure and thermal treatment was related to its conformational changes. Enzyme inactivation was accompanied by secondary and tertiary structure changes until an irreversible protein precipitation is achieved. The tertiary structure, represented by circular dichroism spectra in the aromatic region showed differences among native and MTG samples treated under high pressure, as well as at elevated temperature. Tyrosine bands, indicating protein unfolding, increased proportionally with increasing pressure treatment above 400 MPa. Nevertheless, compared to pressure, a maximal enhancement could be observed after thermal treatment at 0.1 MPa at 80°C. That demonstrated the exposure of hydrophobic groups to the protein surface with a concomitant protein unfolding. The spectra in the far ultraviolet region showed that increasing high pressure and high temperature lead to alterations in the secondary structure. The mathematical algorithms CONTIN used to calculate secondary structures stated that the 24.5% of alpha-helix of native MTG decreased to 17.2% after a treatment at 400 MPa at 40°C for 60 min and to 6.5% after a treatment at 0.1 MPa at 80°C for 2 min. However, beta-strand structures remained relatively stable after these several treatments. MTG is arranged in a way that the active site is located between beta-strand domains that are surrounded by alpha-helices, the results of this investigation suggested that MTG activity is related with the relative stability of alpha-helix and the outstanding stability of the central beta-strand structure. The irreversible precipitated protein observed at 600 MPa at 40°C for 60 min and 0.1 MPa at 80°C for 2 min was caused principally by the formation of disulfides bonds, because high pressure and high thermal treatment lead to the exposition of the Cys64 residue towards the solvent with the subsequent ability to react with neighbouring cysteine residues. Furthermore, the reaction between protein and reducing sugars resulted in the formation of Maillard products. Furosine, as an indicator of the early stages of Maillard reaction was measured. Concentration values of 261.0 mg/g protein from samples treated at 600 MPa and 40°C and 238.5 mg/g protein from samples treated at and 0.1 MPa and 80°C for 2 min were obtained. Pentosidine a subsequent product observed in the advanced Maillard reaction was also present. Concentrations of 13.7 and 6.7 mg/g protein were obtained in the samples treated at 600 MPa and 40°C for 60 min and 0.1 MPa and 80°C for 2 min, respectively. Kinetic inactivation studies of MTG in a pressure range from 0.1 to 600 MPa at 10, 30, 40, and 50°C within a long time range from 0 to 140 h were performed in order to study MTG stability under the simultaneous effect of pressure and temperature. The inactivation kinetic showed a first and very fast step and a second very slow step suggesting irreversible inactivation behaviour. Activation energy and entropy difference decreased with increasing pressure. Thereby, the inactivation rate constants of enzyme were less temperature dependent at high pressure. The effect of pressure and temperature on MTG inactivation had a synergistic behaviour. At temperatures of 10, 30, and 40°C, increasing pressure leads to increasing inactivation rate constants. However at 50°C a tendency change occurred. Negative activation volumes of –16.2±0.5, -13.6±0.1, -11.2±0.3 cm3/mol were obtained for 10, 30 and 40°C respectively and for treatment at 50°C a positive value of about +3.0±2.0 cm3/mol in a pressure range from 0.1 to 300 and a negative volume of –11.0±0.4 cm3/mol MPa from 300 to 600 MPa were calculated. A pressure/temperature diagram from inactivation rate constants was performed to represent MTG stability. The diagram shows that in a pressure and temperature range from 0.1 to 550 MPa and 10 to 40°C, pressure induces MTG stabilization against heat denaturation. At 50°C in range from 0.1 to 300 MPa, pressure induces also enzyme stabilization again heat denaturation, but at the same temperature and above 300 MPa the enzyme was inactivated. After MTG stability analysis, reaction kinetics from MTG with individual caseins in a TRIS-acetate buffer pH 6.0 were performed under atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and high pressure (400 MPa) at 40°C. The reaction was monitored by gel permeation chromatography under in three assumptions: 1) The initial velocity kinetics was obtained from a non-progressive enzymatic reactions with the products. 2) The substrate concentration exceeded enzyme concentration. 3) The sum of the individual catalytic constants of the reactive glutamine residues inside caseins are represented by a single MTG-monomeric casein complex. Enzyme reaction kinetics of MTG with the individual caseins carried out at 0.1 MPa at 40°C showed Michaelis-Menten-Henri behaviour with maximal velocities of 2.7 x 10-3, 0.8 x 10-3, and 1.3 x 10-3 mmol/L∙min and Km values of 59 x 10-3, 64 x 10-3 and 50 x 10-3 mmol/L of beta-, alpha-s1-, and whole-casein, respectively. This suggested that MTG achieved a maximal velocity with ß-casein, but had the best affinity with acid casein followed by beta- casein and finally alpha-s1-casein. Enzyme reaction kinetics of beta-casein carried out at 400 MPa and 40°C also showed a Michaelis-Menten-Henri behaviour with a similar maximal velocity of 2.6 x 10-3 mmol/L×min, but the Km value of 144 x 10-3 mmol/L showing kinetical similarity to a non-competitive inhibition. The reaction of MTG with alpha-s1-casein under high pressure did not fit in to Henri-Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Kinetic parameters showed that the affinity of MTG to beta- and alpha-s1-casein under atmospheric pressure is higher than the affinity of MTG to these caseins under high pressure. This loss of affinity can be explained by a constant number of reactive glutamine residues of casein, although the protein is unfolding at high pressure, a decrease of enzyme activity of MTG to 74% after treatment at 400 MPa at 40°C for 15 min and self association of casein under thermal and high pressure treatment. Fur technological application, the formation of acid milk gels was studied under the influence of MTG within its range of pH stability. Simultaneous addition of MTG and different concentrations of glucono-delta-lactone (Gdl) to casein solutions (5% w/v) at 40°C was analysed. Gels firmness was accessed by oscillation rheometry and gel permeation chromatography. Oscillation rheometry data showed that the time of gelation decreased with an increasing Gdl concentration added to the system, however higher concentrations of Gdl caused the formation of weaker gels. Addition of 1 g Gdl/g protein without MTG caused gelation within 5 min and a storage module value G´ of 48.9 Pa. With the simultaneous addition of 1 g Gdl/g protein and 6 U MTG/ g protein the gelation time was 4 min and the reached storage modulus was 63.7 Pa. However, the addition of 0.21 g Gdl/g protein and 6 U/g protein MTG increase the gelation time to about 69 min, but, a higher module value G´ of 111.0 Pa was achieved. Addition of high Gdl concentration caused a rapid drop of pH below 5 leading to a fast enzyme inactivation. However addition of very low Gdl concentrations was also not optimal. The simultaneous influence of MTG and Gdl concentration on the gelation time and elastic properties was evaluated by a central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The resulting quadratic storage modulus model showed that, MTG concentration had a significant influence on storage modulus G´ and, that the firmness of the gels increase in direct proportion with MTG activity with the existence of a optimum Gdl concentration, whereas the resulting linear model of the gelation time stated that Gdl concentration has a significant influence on the gelation time, while it is independent of the MTG activity. A maximal firmness of 136 ± 2 Pa was reached between a range of 0.24 - 0.27 g Gdl/g protein and 5.8 U MTG/g within a time from 49 to 59 min. Gel permeation chromatography analysis demonstrated that acid gels induced by Gdl were formed by reversible cross-linking like electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds as well as disulfide bonds caused by temperature treatment. Whereas, the addition of MTG proved the formation of non-reversible cross-linking like oligomers based on Ne-(g-glutamyl)- lysine, which gave more firmness and stabilization on the casein gel network.

Kinetic inactivation of factor XIIIa and MTG were performed in a pressure range from 0.1 to 400 MPa at 40°C within a time from 0 to 60 min in a TRIS-acetate buffer at pH 6.0. The inactivation of both enzymes at these conditions followed a first order reaction model. The high inactivation rate constant of 26.6 x10-3/min-1 for factor XIIIa at low pressure (50 MP) indicated that this enzyme is much easier to inactivate than MTG, which achieved an inactivation rate constant value of 9.7 x10-3/min at higher pressure (200 MPa). An inactivation volume of –10.17±0.5 cm3/mol confirmed that MTG is very stable under high pressure. The stability of MTG under high pressure and thermal treatment was related to its conformational changes. Enzyme inactivation was accompanied by secondary and tertiary structure changes until an irreversible protein precipitation is achieved. The tertiary structure, represented by circular dichroism spectra in the aromatic region showed differences among native and MTG samples treated under high pressure, as well as at elevated temperature. Tyrosine bands, indicating protein unfolding, increased proportionally with increasing pressure treatment above 400 MPa. Nevertheless, compared to pressure, a maximal enhancement could be observed after thermal treatment at 0.1 MPa at 80°C. That demonstrated the exposure of hydrophobic groups to the protein surface with a concomitant protein unfolding. The spectra in the far ultraviolet region showed that increasing high pressure and high temperature lead to alterations in the secondary structure. The mathematical algorithms CONTIN used to calculate secondary structures stated that the 24.5% of alpha-helix of native MTG decreased to 17.2% after a treatment at 400 MPa at 40°C for 60 min and to 6.5% after a treatment at 0.1 MPa at 80°C for 2 min. However, beta-strand structures remained relatively stable after these several treatments. MTG is arranged in a way that the active site is located between beta-strand domains that are surrounded by alpha-helices, the results of this investigation suggested that MTG activity is related with the relative stability of alpha-helix and the outstanding stability of the central beta-strand structure. The irreversible precipitated protein observed at 600 MPa at 40°C for 60 min and 0.1 MPa at 80°C for 2 min was caused principally by the formation of disulfides bonds, because high pressure and high thermal treatment lead to the exposition of the Cys64 residue towards the solvent with the subsequent ability to react with neighbouring cysteine residues. Furthermore, the reaction between protein and reducing sugars resulted in the formation of Maillard products. Furosine, as an indicator of the early stages of Maillard reaction was measured. Concentration values of 261.0 mg/g protein from samples treated at 600 MPa and 40°C and 238.5 mg/g protein from samples treated at and 0.1 MPa and 80°C for 2 min were obtained. Pentosidine a subsequent product observed in the advanced Maillard reaction was also present. Concentrations of 13.7 and 6.7 mg/g protein were obtained in the samples treated at 600 MPa and 40°C for 60 min and 0.1 MPa and 80°C for 2 min, respectively. Kinetic inactivation studies of MTG in a pressure range from 0.1 to 600 MPa at 10, 30, 40, and 50°C within a long time range from 0 to 140 h were performed in order to study MTG stability under the simultaneous effect of pressure and temperature. The inactivation kinetic showed a first and very fast step and a second very slow step suggesting irreversible inactivation behaviour. Activation energy and entropy difference decreased with increasing pressure. Thereby, the inactivation rate constants of enzyme were less temperature dependent at high pressure. The effect of pressure and temperature on MTG inactivation had a synergistic behaviour. At temperatures of 10, 30, and 40°C, increasing pressure leads to increasing inactivation rate constants. However at 50°C a tendency change occurred. Negative activation volumes of –16.2±0.5, -13.6±0.1, -11.2±0.3 cm3/mol were obtained for 10, 30 and 40°C respectively and for treatment at 50°C a positive value of about +3.0±2.0 cm3/mol in a pressure range from 0.1 to 300 and a negative volume of –11.0±0.4 cm3/mol MPa from 300 to 600 MPa were calculated. A pressure/temperature diagram from inactivation rate constants was performed to represent MTG stability. The diagram shows that in a pressure and temperature range from 0.1 to 550 MPa and 10 to 40°C, pressure induces MTG stabilization against heat denaturation. At 50°C in range from 0.1 to 300 MPa, pressure induces also enzyme stabilization again heat denaturation, but at the same temperature and above 300 MPa the enzyme was inactivated. After MTG stability analysis, reaction kinetics from MTG with individual caseins in a TRIS-acetate buffer pH 6.0 were performed under atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and high pressure (400 MPa) at 40°C. The reaction was monitored by gel permeation chromatography under in three assumptions: 1) The initial velocity kinetics was obtained from a non-progressive enzymatic reactions with the products. 2) The substrate concentration exceeded enzyme concentration. 3) The sum of the individual catalytic constants of the reactive glutamine residues inside caseins are represented by a single MTG-monomeric casein complex. Enzyme reaction kinetics of MTG with the individual caseins carried out at 0.1 MPa at 40°C showed Michaelis-Menten-Henri behaviour with maximal velocities of 2.7 x 10-3, 0.8 x 10-3, and 1.3 x 10-3 mmol/L∙min and Km values of 59 x 10-3, 64 x 10-3 and 50 x 10-3 mmol/L of beta-, alpha-s1-, and whole-casein, respectively. This suggested that MTG achieved a maximal velocity with ß-casein, but had the best affinity with acid casein followed by beta- casein and finally alpha-s1-casein. Enzyme reaction kinetics of beta-casein carried out at 400 MPa and 40°C also showed a Michaelis-Menten-Henri behaviour with a similar maximal velocity of 2.6 x 10-3 mmol/L×min, but the Km value of 144 x 10-3 mmol/L showing kinetical similarity to a non-competitive inhibition. The reaction of MTG with alpha-s1-casein under high pressure did not fit in to Henri-Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Kinetic parameters showed that the affinity of MTG to beta- and alpha-s1-casein under atmospheric pressure is higher than the affinity of MTG to these caseins under high pressure. This loss of affinity can be explained by a constant number of reactive glutamine residues of casein, although the protein is unfolding at high pressure, a decrease of enzyme activity of MTG to 74% after treatment at 400 MPa at 40°C for 15 min and self association of casein under thermal and high pressure treatment. Fur technological application, the formation of acid milk gels was studied under the influence of MTG within its range of pH stability. Simultaneous addition of MTG and different concentrations of glucono-delta-lactone (Gdl) to casein solutions (5% w/v) at 40°C was analysed. Gels firmness was accessed by oscillation rheometry and gel permeation chromatography. Oscillation rheometry data showed that the time of gelation decreased with an increasing Gdl concentration added to the system, however higher concentrations of Gdl caused the formation of weaker gels. Addition of 1 g Gdl/g protein without MTG caused gelation within 5 min and a storage module value G´ of 48.9 Pa. With the simultaneous addition of 1 g Gdl/g protein and 6 U MTG/ g protein the gelation time was 4 min and the reached storage modulus was 63.7 Pa. However, the addition of 0.21 g Gdl/g protein and 6 U/g protein MTG increase the gelation time to about 69 min, but, a higher module value G´ of 111.0 Pa was achieved. Addition of high Gdl concentration caused a rapid drop of pH below 5 leading to a fast enzyme inactivation. However addition of very low Gdl concentrations was also not optimal. The simultaneous influence of MTG and Gdl concentration on the gelation time and elastic properties was evaluated by a central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The resulting quadratic storage modulus model showed that, MTG concentration had a significant influence on storage modulus G´ and, that the firmness of the gels increase in direct proportion with MTG activity with the existence of a optimum Gdl concentration, whereas the resulting linear model of the gelation time stated that Gdl concentration has a significant influence on the gelation time, while it is independent of the MTG activity. A maximal firmness of 136 ± 2 Pa was reached between a range of 0.24 - 0.27 g Gdl/g protein and 5.8 U MTG/g within a time from 49 to 59 min. Gel permeation chromatography analysis demonstrated that acid gels induced by Gdl were formed by reversible cross-linking like electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds as well as disulfide bonds caused by temperature treatment. Whereas, the addition of MTG proved the formation of non-reversible cross-linking like oligomers based on Ne-(g-glutamyl)- lysine, which gave more firmness and stabilization on the casein gel network.

Umwelttheoretische Konzepte sind ohne Bilder und Medien nicht denkbar. Der Biologe und Begründer der Umwelttheorie Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944) verwendete sie auf vielfältige Weise. Er nutzte chronofotografische Aufnahmen von Meerestieren für seine Forschung, beauftragte Interieurmaler, um sein Konzept subjektiver Umwelten zu vermitteln und entwickelte Diagramme und Schemata – darunter die erste Darstellung eines Funktionskreises –, um die Grundlagen seiner Theorie zu verdeutlichen. Die Dissertation gibt einen Überblick über die vielfältigen Verwendungsformen in Uexkülls gesamtem Werk und setzt darauf aufbauend zwei Schwerpunkte: Erstens im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, als Uexküll im Kontext der Arbeit mit chronofotografischen Verfahren seine zentralen Begriffe entwickelte, sich mit den ästhetischen und erkenntnistheoretischen Schriften Adolf Hildebrands und Immanuel Kants auseinandersetzte und begann, Karl Ernst von Baers Wahrnehmungstheorie zu rezipieren. Zweitens im Spätwerk der 1930er Jahre, als die explizit als Bilderbuch unsichtbarer Welten untertitelten Streifzüge durch die Umwelten von Tieren und Menschen erschienen. Die Streifzüge fassen Uexkülls Forschung mit einem Schwerpunkt auf der Sichtbarmachung verschiedener Umwelten sowie einer Veranschaulichung umwelttheoretischer Konzepte zusammen. Die Dissertation untersucht die kulturhistorischen Kontexte der Bilder, ihre Bezüge zu Uexkülls experimenteller Forschung sowie zu zentralen Konzepten seiner Theorie wie Umwelt, subjektive Zeiten und Räume, Bedeutung (Semiotik) und Funktionszusammenhang von Organismus und Umwelt (Gefüge). Anhand der Bildpraxis werden neben den originellen und in u. a. der Ökologie, Kybernetik, Psychoanalyse und Philosophie rezipierten Ansätzen auch die weltanschaulichen, normativen und autoritären Dimensionen in Uexkülls Werk herausgearbeitet. / Umwelt theory concepts are inconceivable without images and media. The biologist and founder of Umwelt theory Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944) used them in many ways. He used chronophotographic images of marine animals for his research, commissioned interior painters to convey his concept of subjective Umwelten, and developed diagrams and schemes—including the first representation of a functional circle—to clarify the foundations of his theory. This dissertation provides an overview of the diverse uses in Uexküll’s entire oeuvre and, building on this, focuses on two main fields: first, in the early 20th century, when Uexküll developed his central concepts in the context of working with chronophotography, engaged with the aesthetic and epistemological writings of Adolf Hildebrand and Immanuel Kant, and began to receive Karl Ernst von Baer’s theory of perception; and second, in the late 1930s, when the explicitly subtitled “picture book of invisible worlds” Streifzüge durch die Umwelten von Tieren und Menschen (A Foray into the Worlds of Animals and Humans) was published. The book summarizes Uexküll’s research with a focus on making different Umwelten visible as well as demonstrating environmental-theoretical concepts. This dissertation examines the cultural-historical contexts of the images as well as their references to Uexküll’s experimental research and to central concepts of his theory such as the Umwelt, subjective times and spaces, meaning (semiotics), and the functional connection of organism and environment (Gefüge). The practice of images is used to highlight not only the original approaches received in ecology, cybernetics, psychoanalysis, and philosophy, among others, but also the ideological, normative, and authoritarian dimensions in Uexküll’s work.

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