Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) genes encode proteins that metabolize ethanol to acetaldehyde. Humans have seven ADH genes in a cluster. The hypothesis of this study was that by controlling the levels of ADH enzymes, cis-regulatory regions could affect the risk for alcoholism. The goal was thus to identify distal regulatory regions of ADHs. To achieve this, sequence conservation across 220 kb of the ADH cluster was examined. An enhancer (4E) was identified upstream of ADH4. In HepG2 human hepatoma cells, 4E increased the activity of an ADH4 basal promoter by 50-fold. 4E was cell specific, as no enhancer activity was detected in a human lung cell line, H1299. The enhancer activity was located in a 565 bp region (4E3). Four FOXA and one HNF-1A protein binding sites were shown to be functional in the 4E3 region. To test if this region could affect the risk for alcoholism, the effect of variations in 4E3 on enhancer activity was tested. Two variations had a significant effect on enhancer activity, decreasing the activity to 0.6-fold. A third variation had a small but significant effect. The effect of variations in the ADH1B proximal promoter was also tested. At SNP rs1229982, the C allele had 30% lower activity than the A allele. In addition to studying the regulatory regions of ADH genes, the effects of alcohol on liver-derived cells (HepG2) were also explored. Liver is the primary site of alcohol metabolism, and is highly vulnerable to injuries due to chronic alcohol abuse. To identify the effects of long term ethanol exposure on global gene expression and alternative splicing, HepG2 cells were cultured in 75 mM ethanol for nine days. Global gene expression changes and alternative splicing were measured using Affymetrix GeneChip® Human Exon 1.0 ST Arrays. At the level of gene expression, genes involved in stress response pathways, metabolic pathways (including carbohydrate and lipid metabolism) and chromatin regulation were affected. Alcohol effects were also observed on alternative transcript isoforms of some genes.

Master of Science / Department of Entomology / Srinivas Kambhampati / Termites (Isoptera) are eusocial insects and exhibit highly complex eusocial behavior. Eusociality is characterized by the presence of castes (workers, soldiers, reproductives), polyphenisms (same genotype exhibiting multiple phenotypes), flexible developmental pathways, complex communication, cooperative brood care, construction and maintenance of complex nests, and division of labor. Previous studies on honey bees implicated several genes in caste-specific behavior; here, we investigate if orthologs of such genes are present in termites and if so, whether they are expressed differentially among the castes. A candidate gene approach using degenerate primers was used to amplify three candidate genes in the termite Reticulitermes flavipes. Quantitative real time PCR analysis revealed differential expression among termite workers, soldiers, and alates, with a general pattern of higher expression in alates. These results provide information on three novel genes in the termite R. flavipes.

RNA-Seq is an increasingly popular approach to transcriptome profiling that uses the capabilities of next generation sequencing technologies and provides better measurement of levels of transcripts and their isoforms. In this thesis, we apply RNA-Seq protocol and transcriptome quantification to estimate gene expression and pathway activity levels. We present a novel method, called IsoDE, for differential gene expression analysis based on bootstrapping. In the first version of IsoDE, we compared the tool against four existing methods: Fisher's exact test, GFOLD, edgeR and Cuffdiff on RNA-Seq datasets generated using three different sequencing technologies, both with and without replicates. We also introduce the second version of IsoDE which runs 10 times faster than the first implementation due to some in-memory processing applied to the underlying gene expression frequencies estimation tool and we also perform more optimization on the analysis. The second part of this thesis presents a set of tools to differentially analyze metabolic pathways from RNA-Seq data. Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. We focus on two main problems in metabolic pathways differential analysis, namely, differential analysis of their inferred activity level and of their estimated abundance. We validate our approaches through differential expression analysis at the transcripts and genes levels and also through real-time quantitative PCR experiments. In part Four, we present the different packages created or updated in the course of this study. We conclude with our future work plans for further improving IsoDE 2.0.

As síndromes hipertensivas gestacionais estão entre as maiores causas de morte materna e fetal. Entre elas destaca-se a pré-eclâmpsia (PE), que caracteriza-se pelo aumento da pressão arterial e proteinúria, a partir da 20ª semana de gestação. Embora sua etiologia seja ainda discutida, o papel dos fatores genéticos é amplamente aceito. Alterações do padrão da inativação do cromossomo X, processo epigenético encontrado em mamíferos com placenta, têm sido encontradas em algumas doenças que ocorrem exclusivamente em mulheres. O XIST é um gene chave nesse processo. Por outro lado, muitos microRNAs (pequenos RNAs não codificantes) são expressos abundantemente na placenta humana e alguns estão mapeados no cromossomo X. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a verificação do padrão de inativação do cromossomo X e da expressão dos genes XIST e dos microRNAs X-específicos miR-221, miR-222 e mir-223 em mulheres com PE. O ensaio de HUMARA (receptor de andrógeno humano) utilizando PCR convencional e digestão com a enzima sensível à metilação HpaII foi analisado de forma qualitativa (visualização em gel de poliacrilamida) e semi-quantitativa (sequenciamento), sendo realizado a partir de sangue periférico (todas as amostras) e de tecido placentário [apenas das placentas de fetos femininos (17 amostras)]. Para o estudo do padrão de expressão foi obtido cDNA por transcrição reversa, a partir de RNA total extraído do tecido placentário (30 amostras).. A análise foi realizada por meio de PCR em tempo real. Foram utilizados os testes de Qui-quadrado e de t-Student, além do modelo linear generalizado para a análise estatística. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa para o parâmetro de inativação do cromossomo X entre os grupos controle e de PE, independente do tipo de tecido estudado (sangue ou placenta) quando foram aplicados os ensaios de HUMARA qualitativo e semi-quantitativo. Para o gene XIST e o microRNA miR-221 não foi evidenciada diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos controle e de PE. O microRNA miR-223 não apresentou transcritos detectáveis em nenhum dos grupos de estudo. Para o microRNA miR-222, houve diferença estatisticamente significativa, sendo que no grupo de PE a expressão foi mais elevada. Não foi encontrada associação entre o padrão de inativação do cromossomo X e a expressão do gene XIST e dos microRNAs estudados. Embora a inativação preferencial do cromossomo X tenha sido encontrada nos dois grupos, padrões de inativação preferencial extrema foram verificados em um número maior de casos com PE. Os resultados mostram que o miR-222 apresenta potencial para ser utilizado como marcador molecular da PE, sugerindo também que exista uma diminuição na expressão de seus genes-alvo que devem ser estudados como candidatos na patogênese da doença. / The gestational hypertensive syndromes are among the major causes of maternal and fetal death. The Preeclampsia (PE) is the most prevalent of those syndromes and it is characterized by the increase of blood pressure and proteinury, which start from to 20th week of gestation. Although its ethiology is argued actually the genetics factors have been accepted. Alterations in pattern of chromosome X inactivation, epigenetic process of mammals with placenta have been found in some diseases that occur exclusively in women. XIST is a key gene in this process. On the other hand very microRNAs (small RNAs no coding) are overexpressed in human placenta and someones are located at X choromosome. The subject of this research was verify the patterns of chromosome X inactivation and the expression of the XIST gene and X-specific microRNAs in women affected by PE. In the HUMARA (human androgen receptor) assay was carried out with peripheral blood (all samples) and placental tissue [only female fetuses placentas (17 samples)]. The conventional PCR and digestion methodology with HpaII enzyme were employed and the result was analysed to qualitative (polyacrilamide gel) and semi quantitative (sequencing) form. The cDNA was obtained to gene expression study by reverse transcription reaction from placenta total RNA (30 samples). Gene expression assay was carried out with real time PCR. To statistical analyze was used the Qui-square and t-Student tests besides the widespread lineal model. There was not statistical significant differences to chormosome X inactivation parameter among the groups control and PE independently of the tissue studied (blood or placenta) when the qualitative and semi quantitative HUMARA assay were applied. To XIST and miR-221 were not evidenced significant statistical differences among the groups control and of PE. The miR-223 did not show detectable transcripts to any group studied. The miR-222 expression was more elevated in the PE group than control group and this difference was significant statistically. In the present study was not found association among the chromosome X inactivation pattern and the gene expression of XIST and the microRNAs studied. Although the chromosome X inactivation have been found in the two groups the preferential chromosome X inactivation patterns were verified in a great number of cases in PE group. The results showed that miR-222 has a potential to be employed as molecular marker of PE also suggesting the existence of a decrease in expression of its target genes which have to be investigated like candidates to disease pathogenesis.

A cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum spp.) é uma importante cultura agrícola, sendo hospedeira de vários patógenos, incluindo o fungo biotrófico Sporisorium scitamineum, agente causal do carvão. A doença reduz a produtividade das lavouras de cana e a qualidade de seus produtos, sendo reconhecida pelo desenvolvimento de uma estrutura em forma de chicote, onde os teliósporos são produzidos. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o transcritoma da interação cana-de-açúcar - S. scitamineum, visando a identificação de genes do hospedeiro diferencialmente expressos em resposta à infecção fúngica. Gemas da variedade tolerante \'RB92-5345\' foram inoculadas com S. scitamineum e mantidas em casa de vegetação para a coleta das amostras, em dois momentos: 120 h após a inoculação, e no momento da emissão do chicote, aos 200 dias após a inoculação. Foram construídas 12 bibliotecas com base na abordagem RNAseq. Três estratégias computacionais foram utilizadas nas etapas de mapeamento e análise da expressão diferencial de genes da cana: (i) STAR e DESeq, tomando como referência o genoma do sorgo; (ii) Bowtie 2 e DESeq, e (iii) CLC Genomics Workbench, tomando como referência as sequências codificadoras (CDS) do sorgo. Diagramas de Venn foram construídos para identificar genes diferencialmente expressos comuns às três estratégias computacionais, aumentando a acurácia das análises. Para a anotação, foi usada a ferramenta BLAST2GO. Foram obtidos 225 milhões de reads; dentre os 185 milhões usados no mapeamento, 66% foram mapeados em genes e 51% nas CDS. Aproximadamente 77% dos genes e 87% das CDS mapeados apresentaram atividade transcricional (pelo menos um read mapeado), sob as condições do experimento, em ambos os momentos da interação. Um total de 596 e 2.148 genes diferencialmente expressos foram identificados nas respostas iniciais e tardias à infecção, respectivamente; para 79% deles foi possível atribuir uma função. Pelas intersecções, 41 (resposta inicial) e 206 (resposta tardia) genes foram comuns às três estratégias. Sugere-se que a planta percebe o patógeno no início da interação, porém o fungo é capaz de suprimir a resposta de defesa vegetal. Propõe-se que há uma reprogramação da expressão gênica defesa-orientada, favorecendo o desenvolvimento da planta, mesmo com a doença instalada. A expressão de genes relacionados à resistência, às vias de hormônios e com a formação da parede celular (além de inibidores de proteínas fúngicas) sugerem que a planta se empenha drasticamente para sobreviver após 200 dias de interação. Decifrando os perfis do transcritoma da cana na interação com S. scitamineum, este trabalho deve contribuir para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos de resistência ao carvão. / Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is an important crop, and hosts several pathogens, including the biotrophic fungus Sporisorium scitamineum, the causal agent of smut. The disease reduces the sugarcane crop yield and the quality of its products, and is recognized by the development of a whip-like structure, where teliospores are produced. The objective of this study was to analyze the transcriptome of sugarcane - S. scitamineum interaction and to identify differentially expressed genes from the host in response to fungal infection. Buds of the tolerant variety \'RB92-5345\' were inoculated with S. scitamineum and maintained in a greenhouse for two sampling interaction moments: 120 h after inoculation, and at the moment of the whip emission, 200 days after inoculation. Twelve libraries were constructed based on RNAseq approach. Three computational strategies were used in the mapping step and differential expression analysis of sugarcane genes: (i) STAR and DESeq, using as reference the sorghum genome; (ii) Bowtie 2 and DESeq, and (iii) CLC Genomics Workbench, using as reference the coding sequences (CDS) from sorghum. Venn diagrams were created to identify differential expressed genes that were common to the three computational strategies, thus increasing the analysis accuracy. For annotation, the BLAST2GO tool was used. We have obtained 225 million reads; out of the 185 million reads used for mapping, 66% were mapped to genes and 51% to CDS. Approximately 77% and 87% of the mapped genes and CDS respectively showed transcriptional activity (at least one read was mapped) under the experimental conditions at both interaction moments. A total of 596 and 2,148 differentially expressed genes were identified at early and late responses to the infection, respectively; it was possible to attribute function to 79% of them. Through intersectioning, 41 (early response) and 206 (late response) genes were found to be common to the three strategies. It is suggested that the plant recognizes the pathogen at the beginning of interaction period, though the fungal is able to suppress the host defense response. It is also proposed that a defense-oriented transcriptional reprogramming takes place, supporting plant development even with the disease setting. The expression of genes related to resistance, hormone pathways, and cell wall formation (as well as inhibitors of fungal proteins) suggests that the plant makes exceptional efforts to survive after 200 days of interaction. Deciphering the sugarcane transcriptome profile during the interaction with S. scitamineum, this study should contribute to a better understanding of the resistance mechanisms to the smut.

O feijão-comum (Phaseolus vulgaris) é atacado por uma gama de patógenos que afetam a produtividade das lavouras e a qualidade dos grãos. Dentre os patógenos de importância econômica para a cultura no Brasil, destaca-se o nematoide das galhas (Meloidogyne incognita). Embora haja relatos sobre a avaliação de cultivares na presença de M. incognita, as fontes de resistência tem se mostrado pouco efetivas. Por isso, pesquisas que possibilitem um melhor entendimento sobre a interação planta-nematoide são de extrema valia e devem nortear novas estratégias para o melhoramento do feijoeiro. Assim, no presente estudo, 18 cultivares de P. vulgaris foram avaliadas quanto à resistência a M. incognita raça 3, sendo que quatro comportaram-se como pouco suscetíveis, 11 como moderadamente suscetíveis e três altamente suscetíveis. A cultivar IPR Saracura mostrou menor grau de suscetibilidade e foi, então, usada na construção de 12 bibliotecas de RNAseq, visando à identificação dos genes envolvidos na reposta à infecção pelo nematoide. Foram adotados dois tratamentos, 4 e 10 DAI (dias após inoculação), compostos de plantas inoculadas e controles. Primeiramente, realizou-se o mapeamento dos transcritos de cada biblioteca, tomando como referência o genoma de P. vulgaris (G19833), o que resultou na identificação de 27.195 unigenes. Em seguida, foi realizada a quantificação da expressão dos transcritos mapeados e genes diferencialmente expressos foram identificados. No total, 191 genes do hospedeiro apresentaram expressão diferencial, considerando-se: i) o tratamento inoculado em relação ao controle; ii) a razão de expressão (Fold Change - FC) mínima absoluta igual a 4; iii) o nível de significância ? = 0,05. Do total, 120 genes foram identificados aos 4 DAI e 71 aos 10 DAI. As sequências mapeadas foram contrastadas àquelas dos bancos de dados NCBI e TAIR, usando a ferramenta BLASTx e, posteriormente, anotadas usando os softwares Blast2GO e MapMan. Detectou-se similaridade com genes codificadores de proteínas conhecidas para 90% (24.604/27.195) dos unigenes, sendo que 69% (16.991/24.604) deles foram anotados. Quanto à expressão diferencial, 98% (188/191) dos transcritos mostraram similaridade com proteínas conhecidas e 67% (127/188) puderam ser anotados. Os transcritos foram atribuídos a diferentes categorias funcionais putativas, predominando o termo ontológico \'processos metabólicos\', em ambas as plataformas. A anotação dos genes na plataforma MapMan mostrou abundância das categorias da via de resposta a estresse, com predominância de genes de defesa superexpressos aos 4 DAI e reprimidos aos 10 DAI. Por fim, 10 genes mostraram expressão diferencial tanto aos 4 como aos 10 DAI: sete deles foram estáveis, sendo superexpressos nas plantas inoculadas, e três apresentaram comportamentos opostos nos momentos avaliados. Ênfase foi dada a um gene que codifica uma \'probable inactive ADP-ribosyltransferase\' e a quatro genes de resposta a ferimento. / The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is attacked by a range of pathogens, which affect crop yield and the quality of grains. Among the pathogens of economic significance to the crop in Brazil, the root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) deserve attention. Though there are some reports on cultivar evaluation in presence of M. incognita, the resistance sources have not being effective. Therefore, it is of valuable importance research projects that could lead to a better understanding of plant-nematode interaction and to indicate new strategies for common bean breeding. In the present study, 18 cultivars of P. vulgaris were evaluated in regard to their resistance to M. incognita race 3; four were less susceptible, 11 moderately susceptible, and three were highly susceptible. \'IPR Saracura\' behaved as the less susceptible cultivar and then was selected for the construction of 12 RNAseq libraries, aiming at the identification of genes differentially expressed in response to nematode infection. Two treatments were adopted, 4 and 10 days after inoculation (DAI), each comprised of inoculated and control plants. Firstly, the transcripts were mapped to the reference genome of P. vulgaris (G19833), resulting in the identification of 27,195 unigenes. Then, the mapped transcript\'s expression was quantified and differentially expressed genes were identified. In total, 191 genes of the host plant showed differential expression taking into consideration: i) the inoculated treatments in relation to their control; ii) an absolute fold change (FC) >= 4; iii) a level of significance ? = 0,05. Of the total, 120 genes were detected at 4 DAI and 71 at 10 DAI. The mapped sequences were compared against those deposited in NCBI and TAIR databanks using BLASTx and subsequently annotated using Blast2GO and MapMan softwares. Similarity to known proteins was detected for 90% of the unigenes (24,604/27,195) and 69% (16,991/24,604) of them were annotated. Regarding assessing differential expression, 98% (188/191) of the transcripts showed similarity to known proteins and 67% (127/188) were annotated. Transcripts were attributed to different putative functional categories and the ontological term \'metabolic process\' was predominant within both platforms. Gene annotation within MapMan platform showed predominance of stress-related pathway categories, with prevalence of defense genes overexpressed at 4 DAI and repressed at 10 DAI. Finally, 10 genes showed differential expression at both 4 and 10 DAI: seven were stably overexpressed in the inoculated plants, and three showed an opposite behavior regarding the evaluation periods. Attention was given to a gene encoding a probable inactive ADP-ribosyltransferase and four genes related to wound response.

A endometriose é uma doença ginecológica benigna, de etiologia complexa e multifatorial, caracterizada pela presença de estroma e tecido glandular tipo endométrio fora da cavidade uterina. Afeta de 10 a 15% da população feminina, que apresentam sintomatologia variada, incluindo dor pélvica e infertilidade. Para elucidar mecanismos potenciais que estejam envolvidos com a fisiopatologia complexa desta doença, analisamos o perfil de expressão gênico diferencial pela metodologia de hibridação subtrativa em tecido eutópico e ectópico (lesões peritoniais e endometrioma ovariano) de 17 mulheres com endometriose, no início da fase proliferativa do ciclo menstrual. Foram identificados 291 genes desregulados nas lesões endometrióticas, considerados como genes candidatos. Para a validação dos dados, utilizamos a metodologia de PCR em tempo real para os genes CTGF e SPARC, indicados como superexpressos; e MYC, MMP3, IGFBP1 e PAEP como menos expressos nas lesões. Diferenças significativas de expressão nas lesões peritoniais foram obtidas para os genes SPARC, MYC, IGFBP1, PAEP e nos endometriomas ovarianos para os genes MMP3 e PAEP. Sugerimos que a desregulação dos genes SPARC, MYC, MMP3, IGFBPI e PAEP seja responsável pela perda da homeostase celular nas lesões endometrióticas, contribuindo para a implantação e sobrevivência do tecido ectópico no ambiente extra-uterino. Este trabalho disponibilizou ao banco de dados da literatura, 291 genes com expressão gênica diferencial em lesões endometriótricas peritoniais e ovarianas como candidatos a investigações futuras. / Endometriosis is a benign gynecological disease, which presents a multifactorial and complex etiology, characterized by the presence of stromal and glandular endometrium tissue outside the uterine cavity. Ten to 15% of the female population is affected by the disease with a wideranging symptomatology including pelvic pain and infertility. To clarify the potential mechanisms involved in the complex physiopathology of this disease, we analyzed the differential gene expression profile by subtractive hybridization in eutopic and ectopic tissue (peritoneal lesions and ovarian endometriomas) from 17 women with endometriosis, in the early proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle. We identified 291 genes deregulated in the endometriotic lesions, considered as candidate genes. For data validation, Real Time PCR was applied for genes CTGF and SPARC, indicated as overexpressed; and for genes MYC, MMP3, IGFBP1 and PAEP, indicated as downregulated in the lesions. Significant differences in the peritoneal lesions expression were obtained for genes SPARC, MYC, IGFBP1, PAEP and in the ovarian endometriomas for genes MMP3 and PAEP. We suggest that the deregulation of genes SPARC, MYC, MMP3, IGFBPI and PAEP is responsible for loss of cellular homeostasis in the endometriotic lesions, contributing for the implantation and maintenance of the ectopic tissue in the extra-uterine environment. This study provided 291 genes with differential gene expression, in peritoneal and ovarian lesions, to the literature database as candidates for future investigations.

O inseticida spinosad tem sido um dos mais utilizados para o controle de Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) no Brasil, devido à sua eficácia e ao seu mecanismo de ação único (modulador alostérico de receptores nicotínicos da acetilcolina). Para fornecer subsídios a um programa de manejo da resistência, foram realizados estudos para compreender as bases genéticas e moleculares da resistência de S. frugiperda a este inseticida. Inicialmente, foi selecionada uma linhagem de S. frugiperda resistente a spinosad (Spin-res) em laboratório por meio da técnica \"F2 screen\". A razão de resistência, baseada na CL50, foi de aproximadamente 890 vezes. A partir de cruzamentos recíprocos entre a linhagem suscetível (Sus) e Spin-res, constatou-se que o padrão de herança da resistência de S. frugiperda a spinosad é autossômica e incompletamente recessiva. Retrocruzamentos da progênie F1 de cruzamentos recíprocos com a linhagem Spin-res confirmaram a hipótese de herança poligênica da resistência, com número mínimo de segregações independentes variando de 1,86 a 2,45. Além disso, observou-se um elevado custo adaptativo associado à resistência de S. frugiperda a spinosad, baseado nos parâmetros da tabela de vida e fertilidade. A partir dos dados de seqüenciamento de quatro bibliotecas de cDNA de lagartas de quarto ínstar das linhagens Sus e Spin-res (expostas ou não a spinosad), utilizando a plataforma HiScan1000&reg; (Illumina&copy;), foi realizada a comparação do perfil de transcrição e expressão diferencial de genes entre as linhagens Sus e Spin-R. O transcritoma foi montado utilizando a estratégia de novo contendo cerca de 19 milhões de leituras single-end com qualidades de score acima de 30, gerando 42406 transcritos com o N50 de 598 pb. A busca por similaridade no banco de dados não-redundante (nr) do NCBI, possibilitou a anotação funcional de 24980 (59%) transcritos, alinhando-se a Bombyx mori L., Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) e Spodoptera spp. com 22,5; 3,81 e 3,6% das sequências respectivamente. Foram identificados 2903 transcritos apresentando expressão diferencial (P <= 0,05, t-test; fold-change > 2) entre as linhagens Spin-res e Sus. Dentre os transcritos relacionados a enzimas do complexo metabólico, 23 P450 monooxigenases, 13 glutathiona S-transferases, uma carboxilesterase e uma esterase foram superexpressas na linhagem Spin-res. Além disso, foi observada a superexpressão de 15 genes relacionados à produção energética na linhagem Spin-res, o que pode estar relacionada ao elevado custo adaptativo associado à resistência. Análises de PCR quantitativo em tempo real confirmaram que os padrões de expressão foram consistentes com os resultados de RNA-seq. Bioensaios com os sinergistas PBO e DEM mostraram pouco envolvimento de enzimas P450 e nenhum envolvimento de glutationa S-transferases na resistência de S. frugiperda a spinosad. O sequenciamento da subunidade &alpha;6 do receptor nicotínico de acetilcolina de ambas linhagens demonstrou a existência de uma mutação sinônima entre as duas linhagens (G567A), indicando que a subunidade &alpha;6 não é a única relacionada à resistência de S. frugiperda a spinosad. / Spinosad has been one of the most used insecticides to manage Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) in Brazil, due to its efficacy and unique mode of action (nicotinic acetylcholine receptor allosteric modulator). To support an insect resistance management program (IRM), we selected and characterized in laboratory a spinosad-resistant strain (Spin-res) of S. frugiperda using the F2 screen method. The resistance ratio, based on LC50, was &asymp; 890-fold. Based on reciprocal crosses between susceptible (Sus) and Spin-res, the inheritance of spinosad resistance in S. frugiperda was autosomal incompletely recessive. Backcrosses between the F1 from reciprocal crosses and the parental Spin-res revealed a polygenic resistance, with an estimation of at least 1.86 to 2.45 genes related to spinosad resistance. Furthermore, it was observed a strong fitness cost associated to spinosad-resistance in Spin-res strain, based on the life table and fertility parameters. The characterization of the transcriptional profile and the differential gene expression comparison between susceptible and spinosad-resistant strains of Spodoptera frugiperda were obtained from the sequencing of cDNA libraries from fourth instar larvae of Sus and Spin-res strains (exposed or not to spinosad) using a HiScan1000&reg; platform (Illumina&copy;). The transcriptome was de novo assembled using nearly 19 million single-end reads with quality score over 30, yielding 42,406 transcripts with a N50 of 598 bp. Based on similarity search in the non-redundant (nr) nucleotide database, 24,980 (59%) transcripts were annotated. Most of the transcripts aligned to Bombyx mori L., Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) and Spodoptera spp., with 22.5%, 3.81, and 3.6, respectively. We identified 2,032 differentially expressed transcripts (P <= 0.05, t-test; fold-change > 2) between the susceptible and spinosad-resistant strains. Among metabolic enzyme transcripts, 23 P450 monooxigenases, 13 glutathione S-transferases, one carboxylesterase and one esterase were up-regulated in the spinosad-resistant strain. In addition, it was observed 15 genes superexpressed in spinosad-resistant strain related to energy production, which can be related to the high fitness cost associated with resistance. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that patterns of gene expression were consistent with RNA-seq results. Synergistic bioassays using PBO and DEM showed little involvement of P450s in spinosad-resistance and lack of involvement regarding the glutathione Stransferases. Furthermore, we sequenced and compared the subunit &alpha;6 from the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of S. frugiperda Spin-res and Sus strains. Only one synonymous mutation within the two strains (G567A) was found, showing that the &alpha;6 is not the only subunit involved in S. frugiperda resistance to spinosad.

O trigo (Triticum aestivum L.) é uma importante cultura no Brasil. Poucas cultivares são recomendadas para produção do tipo sequeiro no Bioma Cerrado onde a escassez de água limita o rendimento de grãos. Aqui reportamos uma análise de transcriptoma do MGS1 Aliança (cultivar de trigo adaptada ao Cerrado) sob estresse de seca. Um grupo de 4.422 transcritos diferencialmente expressos foi encontrado em raízes e folhas. O número de transcritos reprimidos em raiz (1.102) foi menor que os transcritos induzidos (1.706), enquanto o oposto ocorreu em folhas (1,017 induzidos e 647 reprimidos). O número de transcritos comuns entre ambos órgaõs foi 1.249, enquanto 2.124 foram específicos para raíz e 1.049 específicos para folhas. Análises de RT-qPCR de 35 transcritos selecionados ao acaso revelou uma correlação de 0,78 com os dados de transcriptoma. Os transcritos diferencialmente expressos foram distribuídos por todos os cromossomos e componentes do genoma. O número de transcritos no genoma B foi maior do que nos genomas A e D. Ainda, um grande número de transcritos relacionados à seca foi mapeado nos cromossomos 3B, 5B e 2B. Quando consideramos ambos órgãos, 116 diferentes rotas metabólicas foram alteradas. Uma rota em comum, entre as três mais alteradas em ambos órgãos, foi o metabolismo do amido e da sacarose. A comparação de transcritos derivados de raiz e de folha permite a identificação de transcritos importantes relacionados à respota ao estresse de seca em cada um destes órgãos. Os dados obtidos, também, abrem caminho para o desenvolvimento de futuros marcadores e seleção de genes candidatos ligados à característica. Estes resultados são úteis para o entendimento de rotas metabólicas envolvidas na tolerância à seca em trigo. A informação gerada será usada, a mais longo prazo, para propósitos de transgenia. Para isto, a metodologia de duplo-haploides é desejável e uma primeira investigação sobre a eficiência de protocolo se mostrou necessária. Micrósporos são células gaméticas com capacidade de dar origem a uma nova planta via embriogênese in vitro. Plantas duplo-haploides geradas pela cultura de micrósporos isolados são completamente homozigotas e representam uma importante ferramenta para estudos genéticos e melhoramento de plantas O processo androgenético é desencadeado por diferentes pré-tratamentos de estresse, os quais são empregados para mudar os micrósporos da rota gametofítica para a rota esporofítica. Embora a cultura de micrósporos isolados tenha inúmeras vantagens, importantes limitações tem impedido sua apliação em larga escala. Diferenças genotípicas na resposta androgenética e na formação de plantas albinas ainda constituem desafios. Embora o albinismo seja principalmente uma característica genética, pré-tratamentos e meios de cultura apropriados podem evitar este fenômeno até certo ponto. A resposta androgenética de cinco genótipos de trigo brasileiro foi avaliada no presente estudo. Dois pré-tratamentos foram testados: frio (4°C) e ácido 2-hidroxinicotinico (100 mg/L). O frio foi melhor que o pré-tratamento químico, produzindo mais plantas verdes em quatro de cinco genótipos. Somente dois genótipos brasileiros tratados com ácido 2-hidroxinicotinico produziram plantas, e um deles apenas uma única planta albina. Nossos reultados mostram, também, que o meio semilíquido (contendo 10% de Ficoll) promoveu uma maior resposta androgenética que o meio líquido, aumentando o número de embriões e plantas regeneradas. / Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important crop cultivated in Brazil. Few cultivars are recommended for rainfed production in the Cerrado Biome where water scarcity limits grain yield. Here we report a transcriptome analysis of MGS1 Aliança (a wheat cultivar adapted to the Cerrado) under drought stress. A set of 4,422 differentially expressed transcripts was found in roots and leaves. The number of down-regulated transcripts in roots (1,102) was lower than the up-regulated transcripts (1,706), while the opposite occurred in leaves (1,017 induced and 647 repressed). The number of common transcripts between the two tissues was 1,249, while 2,124 were specific to roots and 1,049 specific to leaves. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of 35 randomly selected transcripts revealed a 0.78 correlation with the transcriptome data. The differentially expressed transcripts were distributed across all chromosomes and component genomes. The number of transcripts on the B genome was greater than on the A and D genomes. Additionally, a greater number of drought related transcripts was mapped on chromosomes 3B, 5B and 5D. When considering both tissues, 116 different metabolic pathways were changed. One common pathway, among the top three changed pathways in both tissues, was starch and sucrose metabolism. The comparison of root- and leaf-derived transcripts allows the identification of important transcripts related to water stress response in each of these tissues. It also paves the way for future marker development and selection of candidate genes linked to that trait. These results are useful for understanding the metabolic pathways involved in wheat drought response. The information generated will be used for transgenic wheat purposes. For this the doubled-haploid method is desirable and an investigation about the protocol eficiency is needed. Microspores are gametic cells with capacity to give rise to a new plant via in vitro embryogenesis. Doubled haploid plants generated by isolated microspore culture are completely homozygous and represent an important tool for plant genetics and breeding research. This process is triggered by different stress pretreatments, which are employed to switch microspores from gametophytic to a sporophytic pathway. Although isolated microspore culture has innumerous advantages, important limitations have prevented its application on a large scale. Genotypic differences in androgenic response and the formation of albino plants remain great challenges. Although albinism is a major genetic characteristic, appropriated pretreatments and culture medium can avoid this phenomenon to some extent. The androgenic response of five Brazilian wheat genotypes was evaluated in the present study. Two pretreatments were tested: cold (4°C) and 2-hydroxynicotinic acid (100 mg/L). Cold was better than chemical pretreatment, producing more green plants in four out of five genotypes. Only two Brazilian genotypes treated with 2-hydroxynicotinic acid produced plants, and one of them produced a single albino plant. Our results also show that semi-liquid medium (containing 10% Ficoll) promoted a higher androgenic response than did liquid medium, increasing the number of embryos and regenerated plants.

For more than 80 years vitamin E has been in the focus of scientific research. Most of the progress concerning non-antioxidant functions, nevertheless, has only arisen from publications during the last decade.<br> Most recently, the metabolic pathway of vitamin E has been almost completely elucidated. Vitamin E is metabolized by truncation of its side chain. The initial step of an omega-hydroxylation is carried out by cytochromes P450 (CYPs). This was evidenced by the inhibition of the metabolism of alpha-tocopherol by ketoconozole, an inhibitor of CYP3A expression, whereas rifampicin, an inducer of CYP3A expression increased the metabolism of alpha-tocopherol. Although the degradation pathway is identical for all tocopherols and tocotrienols, there is a marked difference in the amount of the release of metabolites from the individual vitamin E forms in cell culture as well as in experimental animals and in humans. Recent findings not only proposed an CYP3A4-mediated degradation of vitamin E but also suggested an induction of the metabolizing enzymes by vitamin E itself.<br> In order to investigate how vitamin E is able to influence the expression of metabolizing enzymes like CYP3A4, a pregnane X receptor (PXR)-based reporter gene assay was chosen. PXR is a nuclear receptor which regulates the transcription of genes, e.g., CYP3A4, by binding to specific DNA response elements. And indeed, as shown here, vitamin E is able to influence the expression of CYP3A via PXR in an in vitro reporter gene assay. Tocotrienols showed the highest activity followed by delta- and alpha-tocopherol. An up-regulation of Cyp3a11 mRNA, the murine homolog of the human CYP3A4, could also be confirmed in an animal experiment. The PXR-mediated change in gene expression displayed the first evidence of a direct transcriptional activity of vitamin E. PXR regulates the expression of genes involved in xenobiotic detoxification, including oxidation, conjugation, and transport. CYP3A, e.g., is involved in the oxidative metabolism of numerous currently used drugs. This opens a discussion of possible side effects of vitamin E, but the extent to which supranutritional doses of vitamin E modulate these pathways in humans has yet to be determined. <br><br> Additionally, as there is arising evidence that vitamin E's essentiality is more likely to be based on gene regulation than on antioxidant functions, it appeared necessary to further investigate the ability of vitamin E to influence gene expression. Mice were divided in three groups with diets (i) deficient in alpha-tocopherol, (ii) adequate in alpha-tocopherol supply and (iii) with a supranutritional dosage of alpha-tocopherol. After three months, half of each group was supplemented via a gastric tube with a supranutritional dosage of gamma-tocotrienol per day for 7 days. Livers were analyzed for vitamin E content and liver RNA was prepared for hybridization using cDNA array and oligonucleotide array technology. A significant change in gene expression was observed by alpha-tocopherol but not by gamma-tocotrienol and only using the oligonucleotide array but not using the cDNA array. The latter effect is most probably due to the limited number of genes represented on a cDNA array, the lacking gamma-tocotrienol effect is obviously caused by a rapid degradation, which might prevent bioefficacy of gamma-tocotrienol.<br> Alpha-tocopherol changed the expression of various genes. The most striking observation was an up-regulation of genes, which code for proteins involved in synaptic transmitter release and calcium signal transduction. Synapsin, synaptotagmin, synaptophysin, synaptobrevin, RAB3A, complexin 1, Snap25, ionotropic glutamate receptors (alpha 2 and zeta 1) were shown to be up-regulated in the supranutritional group compared to the deficient group. The up-regulation of synaptic genes shown in this work are not only supported by the strong concentration of genes which all are involved in the process of vesicular transport of neurotransmitters, but were also confirmed by a recent publication. However, a confirmation by real time PCR in neuronal tissue like brain is now required to explain the effect of vitamin E on neurological functionality. The change in expression of genes coding for synaptic proteins by vitamin E is of principal interest thus far, since the only human disease directly originating from an inadequate vitamin E status is ataxia with isolated vitamin E deficiency. Therefore, with the results of this work, an explanation for the observed neurological symptoms associated with vitamin E deficiency can be presented for the first time. / Chemisch handelt es sich bei Vitamin E um acht lipophile Derivate des 6 Chromanols mit einer Seitenkette. Nach dem Sättigungsgrad der Seitenkette lassen sich die Derivate in die Tocopherole (gesättigte Seitenkette) und die Tocotrienole (ungesättigte Seitenkette mit drei Doppelbindungen) einteilen. Entsprechend der Methylierung des Chromanrings lassen sie sich in alpha-, beta-, gamma- und delta-Tocopherol, bzw. Tocotrienol unterscheiden. Davon besitzt alpha-Tocopherol, das gleichzeitig die im Plasma dominierende Form darstellt, die höchste biologische Aktivität. Aufnahme wie auch der Transport von Vitamin E im Körper sind vergleichsweise gut erforscht. Die Kenntnisse zu Metabolismus und Elimination waren jedoch bis vor kurzem sehr lückenhaft. Lange Zeit waren nur Vitamin E-Metabolite mit geöffnetem Chromanring, die sogenannten Simon-Metabolite Tocopheronsäure und Tocopheronolacton bekannt. Diese Metabolite können nur aus oxidativ gespaltenem Vitamin E entstehen und galten daher auch als Beweis für die antioxidative Wirkung von Vitamin E. Mit verbesserter Analytik wurde vor einigen Jahren gezeigt, dass die Simon-Metabolite größtenteils Isolierungsartefakte sind. Stattdessen wurden Metabolite mit intaktem Chromanring identifiziert. Tocopherole wie auch Tocotrienole werden im Körper durch eine Verkürzung der Seitenkette abgebaut. Die Endprodukte sind in jedem Fall CEHCs (Carboxyethyl Hydroxychromane). Die Seitenkettenverkürzung startet mit einer omega-Hydroxylierung gefolgt von 5 Schritten &#61472;beta-Oxidation. Die omega Hydroxylierung der Seitenkette durch Cytochrom P450 (CYP) Enzyme wurde indirekt bestätigt. CYP3A4 gilt dabei als eines der wahrscheinlichsten Enzyme im Abbau von Vitamin E, die Beteiligung weiterer CYPs wird jedoch gleichfalls angenommen. Auffällig ist, dass nicht alle Vitamin E-Formen in gleichem Ausmaß abgebaut werden. Die Ausscheidung von CEHCs aus alpha-Tocopherol ist, verglichen zu andern Vitamin E-Formen, in kultivierten Zellen wie auch in vivo sehr gering. Die Art der Seitenkettenverkürzung von Vitamin E spricht für einen Abbau über das Fremdstoff-metabolisierende System, welches auch eine Vielzahl von Medikamenten verstoffwechselt.<br> Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte mittels Reportergenassay in HepG2 Zellen gezeigt werden, dass Vitamin E einen nukleären Rezeptor, den Pregnan X Rezeptor (PXR), zu aktivieren und die Expression von PXR-regulierten Genen zu beeinflussen vermag. PXR reguliert eine Reihe von Genen für Fremdstoff-metabolisierende Enzyme wie z.B. Cytochrom P450 3A4 durch Bindung an sein responsives Element im Promotor der Zielgene. Die untersuchten Vitamin E-Formen unterschieden sich deutlich hinsichtlich ihrer PXR-Aktivierung. Die Tocotrienole zeigten die höchste PXR-Aktivierung - vergleichbar mit Rifampicin, einem bekannt guten PXR-Aktivator - gefolgt von delta / alpha- und gamma-Tocopherol. Im Tierversuch an Mäusen konnte die erhöhte Expression von Cyp3a11, dem Homolog des humanen CYP3A4 in Abhängigkeit von der alpha-Tocopherol-Zufuhr bestätigt werden. Somit konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Vitamin E die Expression von Genen direkt beeinflussen kann. Darüber hinaus unterstreicht diese Beobachtung die Möglichkeit einer Wechselwirkung von pharmakologischen Dosen Vitamin E mit dem Abbau von Medikamenten. Eine genregulatorische Funktion von Vitamin E ist auf den ersten Blick überraschend. Denn wenngleich Vitamin E vor über 80 Jahren als Fertilitätsfaktor bei Ratten entdeckt wurde, steht die erst später beschriebene antioxidative Eigenschaft von Vitamin E bis heute im Fokus der meisten Publikationen. Die molekularen Mechanismen der Essentialität von Vitamin E wurden dagegen wenig untersucht. Erst in den letzten Jahren finden Funktionen von Vitamin E Interesse, die über seine antioxidative Wirkung hinausgehen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass Vitamin E in vitro die Expression von Genen wie dem Scavenger Rezeptor CD36, dem Connective Tissue Growth Factor oder dem Peroxisomen-Proliferator aktivierten Rezeptor gamma beeinflussen kann.<br> Um weitere Zielgene von Vitamin E in vivo identifizieren zu können, wurden im zweiten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit Mäuse in drei Fütterungsgruppen mit einer a) defizientem b) adäquatem sowie c) mit einer supranutritiven alpha Tocopherol-Versorgung über 3 Monate gefüttert. Zusätzlich erhielt die Hälfte der Tiere aus jeder Gruppe während der letzten Lebenswoche eine supranutritive Dosis gamma-Tocotrienol pro Tag. Aus den Lebern der Tiere wurde die RNA präpariert und die differentielle Genexpression mittels a) cDNA und b) Oligonukleotide enthaltenden GenChips analysiert.<br> Eine signifikante Änderung in der Genexpression zwischen den verschiedenen Fütterungsgruppen fand sich jedoch nur in den Analysen der Oligonukleotid GenChips. Dies kann auf die begrenzte Anzahl von Genen zurückzuführen sein, die auf den cDNA GenChips repräsentiert waren. Auch ein signifikanter Effekt von gamma-Tocotrienol auf die Genexpression konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Wahrscheinlich ist die hohe Ausscheidung von gamma-CEHC, dem Abbauprodukt von gamma-Tocotrienol, die im Urin der Tiere gemessen wurde und die damit womöglich verringerte Bioverfügbarkeit von gamma-Tocotrienol dafür verantwortlich.<br> Mit Hilfe der Oligonukleotid GenChips konnte jedoch ein signifikanter Effekt von alpha-Tocopherol auf die Expression einer Vielzahl von Genen beobachtet werden. Herausstechend war dabei die erhöhte Expression von für den vesikulären Transport essentiellen Genen, die für den synaptischen Signaltransfer benötigt werden. So wurden z.B. Synapsin, Synaptotagmin, Synaptophysin, Synaptobrevin, RAB3A, Complexin 1, Snap25, die ionotrophen Glutamat Rezeptoren alpha 2 und zeta 1 in Abhängigkeit von der alpha Tocopherol-Versorgung über die Diät erhöht exprimiert. Die Beobachtung, dass Vitamin E bei neurologischen Prozessen eine Rolle zu spielen scheint ist jedoch nicht neu. Bei Patienten mit einem Mangel an funktionellem alpha-Tocopherol-Transfer-Protein (alpha-TTP) kann es zu stark verringerten Plasmakonzentrationen an Vitamin E kommen, da alpha-TTP eine zentrale Rolle in der Aufnahme und Verteilung von Vitamin E im Körper einnimmt. An diesen Patienten können charakteristische Vitamin E-Mangelzustände beobachtet, die durch eine Reihe von neurologischen Störungen wie Ataxien, Hyporeflexie sowie eine verringerte propriozeptive und vibratorische Sensitivität gekennzeichnet sind. Mit den vorliegenden Ergebnissen kann nun erstmals eine mechanistische Erklärung für diese Symptome diskutiert werden. Eine Bestätigung der vorliegenden Ergebnisse via RT-PCR und Western Blot, z.B. in neuronalem Gewebe wie dem Gehirn, sowie anschließende funktionellen Untersuchungen ist daher dringend geboten.