Une théorie de l'enseignement des langues ne peut pas se contenter d'une vision trop étroite de ce qu'est une langue, ni de ce que c'est que d'acquérir ou d'utiliser une langue - au risque de limiter les apprentissages qui découleraient de sa mise en pratique. Depuis la fin des années 1980, il existe une discipline scientifique spécialement consacrée aux caractéristiques linguistiques, psychologiques et sociales de l'acquisition des langues étrangères (L2), la " recherche en acquisition des langues " ou RAL en France (Second Language Acquisition Research (SLA) en anglais). S'alignant sur la recherche en psycholinguistique (développement et traitement de la langue maternelle (L1), développement et traitement du langage par les bilingues), la RAL internationale propose, depuis une dizaine d'années, un modèle " émergentiste " de l'acquisition des L2. Le langage, comme n'importe quelle autre acquisition humaine, " émerge " de nos traitements réitérés d'informations linguistiques dans des contextes sociaux déterminés, grâce à notre capacité à percevoir des régularités (patterns) dans le monde qui nous entoure et à interpréter les intentions des autres (intention reading). L'acquisition d'une langue étrangère (à la différence de la plupart des apprentissages que nous effectuons au cours de notre vie) est compliquée par le fait qu'un réseau langagier complet est déjà en place (celui de notre L1) ; il peut nous aider à comprendre le sens et le fonctionnement de la langue à apprendre, mais il peut aussi entraver nos tentatives de traitement de cette L2 (L3, L4...) en temps réel. La base théorique essentielle à une didactique des langues complète s'avère donc aussi riche et complexe que les activités langagières qu'elle tente de décrire. Elle doit prendre en compte différents phénomènes, chacun d'une assez grande complexité : les processus à l'œuvre dans le développement de la L1 ; les différences entre ces processus et ceux qui caractérisent l'acquisition d'une L2 en milieu scolaire ; les variables individuelles et sociales pouvant déterminer ou influencer les acquis ; les processus à l'œuvre dans l'utilisation d'une langue (L1 et L2). Ce document propose de faire cette synthèse théorique.

This study investigates the acquisition of grammatical gender and number agreement in Italian as a second language (L2). The theoretical framework is based on a functional approach that stresses the importance of form function mappings, cues, frequency effects and the statistical properties of the language input. The Competition Model is of particular importance and the Italian oral corpus LIP is used to make calculations that measure the validity, availability and reliability of the Italian noun endings. The data consists of 71 transcribed teacher-student dialogues with Swedish learners of Italian at Stockholm University. The results show that learners have problems with feminine gender in the plural and with ambiguous noun endings, i.e. cases where one form is connected to more than one function. These findings can be explained by cue competition and frequency effects and to some extent by a markedness effect.  A second study with time (longitudinal development) and reliability of the noun endings (high or low) as independent variables and degree of accuracy as dependent variable showed a positive increase in accuracy rates over time, both for low and high reliability noun endings. There was also a significant interaction effect between the two independent variables according to which cases of agreement with low validity noun endings showed a higher increase in accuracy rates than high validity noun endings. This could be explained by the power law of practice, i.e. cases of agreement with high reliability noun endings soon reach a very high level of accuracy from which it is difficult to make further progress.

Face-to-face interaction with target language (TL) group members can provide the intensive second language (L2) exposure required to enhance motivation; it improves attitudes towards L2 development, and promotes achievement (Freed, 1995; Warden, Lapkin, Swain, & Hart, 1995). However, face-to-face interaction with TL group members is not always possible. This is especially true for former core French (CF) students who have enrolled in beginner French as a Second Language (FSL) courses at universities in predominantly Anglophone regions of Canada. To address this issue, I designed a mixed-method case study to examine opportunities for providing intensive FSL exposure and enhancing motivation for beginner FSL university learners. The participants were 55 beginning learners of FSL studying at an Anglophone university in Atlantic Canada. To examine intensive FSL exposure, I compared the overall writing achievement over time of 2 groups interacting in a telecollaborative context: (a) a group interacting with younger Francophone Acadians in another province; and (b) a group interacting with classroom peers of similar L2 proficiency. To gain indepth insight into the effects of the telecollaboration, I explored 4 learners’ L2 motivational self-system: (a) perceptions of their prior and current language-learning experiences; and (b) how language-learner identity was shaped by the experiences. The study is based on 5 data sources: writing samples, background questionnaires, stimulated-recall interviews, language-learning autobiographies, and ongoing observations. It is grounded in 5 bodies of knowledge: the Input-Interaction-Output hypothesis within a socio-cultural perspective (Block, 2003), current L2 writing theory, collaborative learning theory, telecollaborative research, and Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self-System Theory. Quantitative comparison of overall writing achievement in the 2 telecollaborative writing contexts (using Mann-Whitney U tests) revealed that the comparison group performed better than the treatment group. Qualitative findings, however, demonstrated that the treatment group had more positive perceptions of their language-learning experiences with respect to L2 writing achievement at university, as well as more positive language-learner identities than did the comparison group. Further exploration of language-learner identities from an L2 motivational self-system perspective identified 3 identity shaping characteristics: evolution, demotivation and amotivation, and self-regulation.

Face-to-face interaction with target language (TL) group members can provide the intensive second language (L2) exposure required to enhance motivation; it improves attitudes towards L2 development, and promotes achievement (Freed, 1995; Warden, Lapkin, Swain, & Hart, 1995). However, face-to-face interaction with TL group members is not always possible. This is especially true for former core French (CF) students who have enrolled in beginner French as a Second Language (FSL) courses at universities in predominantly Anglophone regions of Canada. To address this issue, I designed a mixed-method case study to examine opportunities for providing intensive FSL exposure and enhancing motivation for beginner FSL university learners. The participants were 55 beginning learners of FSL studying at an Anglophone university in Atlantic Canada. To examine intensive FSL exposure, I compared the overall writing achievement over time of 2 groups interacting in a telecollaborative context: (a) a group interacting with younger Francophone Acadians in another province; and (b) a group interacting with classroom peers of similar L2 proficiency. To gain indepth insight into the effects of the telecollaboration, I explored 4 learners’ L2 motivational self-system: (a) perceptions of their prior and current language-learning experiences; and (b) how language-learner identity was shaped by the experiences. The study is based on 5 data sources: writing samples, background questionnaires, stimulated-recall interviews, language-learning autobiographies, and ongoing observations. It is grounded in 5 bodies of knowledge: the Input-Interaction-Output hypothesis within a socio-cultural perspective (Block, 2003), current L2 writing theory, collaborative learning theory, telecollaborative research, and Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self-System Theory. Quantitative comparison of overall writing achievement in the 2 telecollaborative writing contexts (using Mann-Whitney U tests) revealed that the comparison group performed better than the treatment group. Qualitative findings, however, demonstrated that the treatment group had more positive perceptions of their language-learning experiences with respect to L2 writing achievement at university, as well as more positive language-learner identities than did the comparison group. Further exploration of language-learner identities from an L2 motivational self-system perspective identified 3 identity shaping characteristics: evolution, demotivation and amotivation, and self-regulation.

Nata a PavlovićDireccionalidad en procesos de traducción colaborativa Un estudio de traductores noviciosResumenLa traducción hacia la segunda lengua (traducción L2) es una realidad en muchos ámbitos alrededor del mundo, en especial - aunque no exclusivamente - en aquellas culturas que utilizan una "lengua de difusión limitada". Incluso a los traductores cuyo idioma materno es una de las lenguas "mayores" se les está exigiendo cada vez con mayor frecuencia el trabajar a partir de su primera lengua (L1) hacia el inglés, el idioma que predomina en el mundo globalizante. Esto hace que la traducción L2 constituya una cuestión de creciente importancia para el profesional, convirtiendo asimismo la investigación sobre la traducción hacia la segunda lengua en un tema de mayor relevancia en la Traductología. El propósito del presente estudio era comparar los procesos de traducción L1 y L2 realizados por traductores novicios, con el fin de aislar las características que difieran en forma significativa según la dirección, con el propósito de desarrollar la enseñanza de la traducción. Con este objetivo en mente, el estudio pretende probar la siguiente hipótesis general: "Las traducciones L1 y L2 muestran algunas diferencias que pudieran ser atribuidas a la dirección de la traducción". En forma más específica, se ha planteado la hipótesis de que las traducciones L1 y L2 difieren no sólo en los productos, sino también en algunos aspectos importantes de los procesos de traducción. Por ello se han seleccionado las siguientes características como potencialmente significativas:· La cantidad y el tipo de problemas a los que se van a enfrentar los sujetos;· Las soluciones que van a considerar;· Las maneras en que van a evaluar las soluciones y tomar las decisiones finales;· Los recursos que van a consultar;· Las acciones/interacciones que van a llevar a cabo;· Los argumentos que van a utilizar para tomar decisiones;· La calidad de sus productos finales.El estudio fue concebido como un conjunto de experimentos que involucraban a traductores novicios - estudiantes universitarios que acababan de presentar su examen final de traducción. Todos los sujetos tenían el croata como primera lengua (L1) y habían estudiado inglés como segunda lengua previamente durante 12 años por lo menos. Se utilizaron para los experimentos dos textos de origen comparables de lenguaje general, uno en inglés y el otro en croata.El método para la recolección de los datos utilizados en los experimentos fue el "protocolo de traducción colaborativa", un tipo de informe verbal obtenido de las sesiones de traducción colaborativa (grupal). Las sesiones de traducción fueron grabadas con cámara de vídeo digital y posteriormente transcritas, mientras que para complementar los datos obtenidos de las sesiones de traducción, se utilizaron cuestionarios previos y posteriores a los experimentos. Para procesar los datos se utilizaron tanto el análisis cuantitativo como el cualitativo.Se pueden resumir los resultados de este estudio de la siguiente manera:· En las traducciones L1 y L2 de textos específicos de tipo general de dificultad comparable, se encontró que los traductores novicios se enfrentaban a cantidades y tipos de problemas similares en ambas direcciones de traducción.· La "fluidez" en la traducción L1 era mayor que en la L2, es decir, los traductores novicios se apoyaban más en recursos internos en el caso de la traducción L1 que en la traducción L2.· Los traductores novicios lograban productos de mejor calidad en sus traducciones hacia L1 que hacia L2.· El monitoreo del producto era más estricto en las traducciones hacia L1 que en las traducciones hacia L2.· La construcción del significado del texto de partida desempeña un papel importante en ambas direcciones de traducción.· Los traductores novicios preferían una cierta combinación de acciones/interacciones característica de su estilo de trabajo, sin importar la dirección de traducción.Se espera poder aplicar los resultados en la formación en traducción, en especial en aquellos ámbitos donde la traducción L2 se enseña a nivel universitario. Asimismo se espera que este estudio sea de utilidad para futura investigación sobre la direccionalidad, sobre la traducción colaborativa y - en forma más general - sobre los procesos de traducción.AbstractTranslation into the second language (L2 translation) is a reality in many settingsaround the world, especially - but not exclusively - in those cultures that use a"language of limited diffusion". Even translators whose mother tongue is one of the"major" languages are more and more frequently required to work out of their firstlanguage (L1) into English, the dominant language of the globalizing world. This makesL2 translation an increasingly important issue for the practitioner, and research on L2translation a very relevant topic for Translation Studies.In the past, prescriptive approaches to translation denounced the practice of L2translation as unprofessional or even impossible. As a result, L2 translation was untilrecently largely neglected both in translation theories and in research. Over the past tento fifteen years, however, the number of studies dealing with L2 translation has been onthe increase, with translation into the non-mother tongue even becoming the main topicof forums and conferences, and their subsequent publications (e.g. Kelly et al. 2003;Grosman et al 2000).The aim of this study is to compare L1 and L2 translation processes by novicetranslators, in order to isolate the features that differ significantly according to direction,with a view to improving translation teaching. To this end, the study sets out to test thefollowing general hypothesis: "L1 and L2 translation display some differences that canbe attributed to direction of translation". More specifically, it is hypothesized that L1and L2 translation differ not only in products, but also in some important aspects oftranslation processes. The following features are therefore selected as likely to berelevant:The number and type of problems the subjects encounter;The solutions they consider;The ways in which they assess the solutions and make final decisions;The resources they consult; The actions/interactions they take; The arguments they use in making decisions; The quality of their final products.The study is set up as a set of experiments involving novice translators -university students who have just passed their final translation exam. All the subjectshave Croatian as their first language L1, and have been learning English as their secondlanguage for at least 12 years. Two comparable general- language source texts, one inEnglish and the other in Croatian, are used in the experiments.The method of data collection used in the experiments is the "collaborativetranslation protocol," a type of verbal report obtained from collaborative (group)translation sessions. Four groups of three subjects are asked to translate the two texts,one into their L1 (L1 translation task) and the other into their L2 (L2 translation task).Collaborative translation (cf. Kiraly 2000a), albeit not typical of professional translationpractice, is nevertheless used in educational settings, and has been part of the subjects'translation training. The translation sessions are recorded by a digital video camera, andtranscribed. Pre- and post-experiment questionnaires complement the data from thetranslation sessions. Control experiments aimed at comparing collaborative andindividual translation are carried out with comparable subjects and involve choicenetwork analysis (cf. Campbell 2001) and integrated problem and decision reports (cf.Gile 2004).Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are used to process the data. Thefindings are expected to be applicable in translation training, especially in settingswhere L2 translation is taught at university level.

This study focuses on the pragmatic transfers that emerge in the English emails produced byChinese L2 English speakers. Despite doubts about taking Chinese English as a new variety, the study believes there are some common and unique pragmatic features existing in the English text produced by Chinese L2 English speakers. 104 emails written by 13 subjects with different English proficiency and different English exposure were collected. Questionnaires were sent out to the same subjects, trying to find out the factors that affect their pragmatic performance. The study accomplished the following main findings: 1) There are differences in the extent to which pragmatic transfer occurs among different subjects. 2) The individual subject’s pragmatic performance in English is not necessarily decided by the subjects’ English proficiency. 3) The extent of pragmatic transfer in the individual subject’s case seems to be much more complex situation than depending on any single factor of the following: English proficiency, exposure to English, or confidence in using English. 4) Some email writers have different extent of pragmatic transfer in the situations with different levels of tension. 5) However, whether the subjects have different extent of pragmatic transfer or not seems again to be too complex a situation to decide which of the factors (English proficiency, exposure to English, or confidence in using English) plays a decisive role.

This paper is a study of the noun phrase construction in L2 learner language and the base for the study are the tools for measuring syntactic maturity presented by Kellog W. Hunt (1966). Hunt and other scholars have used T-units, the smallest terminable unit in language, to analyze L2 learner language. This study however, analyzes the construction of the noun phrase instead of T-units. Although the focus differs there are many similarities between the method used in this study and in those analyzing T-units. This means that the study tries to create indexes which we can use as tools for measuring syntactic maturity and complexity among L2 learners, by measuring consolidation and postmodification. The outcome of the study shows that it is possible to measure consolidation of the noun phrase and that this figure may very well function as a tool for measuring language development. Furthermore this paper investigates opportunities for teachers to teach syntax and concludes that there are ways of improving L2 teaching by utilizing knowledge about L2 learner syntax.

This study aimed at developing a complementary peer-teacher feedback model, in which students and teachers share the responsibility of providing feedback in a systematic way and testing its effectiveness. The effectiveness of the developed feedback model on improving students&amp / #8217 / writing ability was tested in the context of a multiple draft writing course which followed a process approach with 57 preparatory class students at Karadeniz Technical University, Department of English Language and Literature for a period of 15 weeks (a semester). The study was designed as an experimental study in which the experimental group students were provided feedback through a complementary peer-teacher feedback model and the control group students were provided feedback through full teacher feedback. The two groups were compared in terms of their revisions, their essay scores and their attitudes towards feedback and writing. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected through revision coding, a pretest and posttest on writing ability, two questionnaires and student reflections. The results revealed that although the traditional full teacher feedback model created more revisions on the whole, the two models did not create a difference in terms of revision quality or writing improvement between the two groups. On the other hand, the complementary peer-feedback model was found more successful in creating positive attitudes towards peer feedback and self-correction but no differences were observed in students&amp / #8217 / perceptions of the difficulty of writing skill. Some recommendations are made for the design and implementation of feedback activities in writing classes.

The purpose of this study is to reveal the perceptions of teachers, learners, teacher trainers and administrators on teachers

This study has the main objective of evaluating the effectiveness of the writing component of the program applied at the Department of Basic English (DBE) and the Department of Modern Languages (DML) at Middle East Technical University (METU) in the 2010-2011 academic year in terms of program objectives, materials and content, teaching-learning process and the assessment of the writing skills. The opinions of the DBE and DML instructors, program coordinators and students as well as the content course instructors at different departments at METU were mainly obtained via questionnaires and interviews. The data collected via the questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS 15 while the analysis of all the qualitative data was done though content analysis. The results of the questionnaires indicated that the writing components of the program at the DBE and the DML were generally effective as for the dimensions of the programs as specified in the research questions from the perspective of instructors and students. However, the qualitative data revealed participants&rsquo / suggestions for the improvement of the existing writing programs at both departments. Some of the major conclusions that can be drawn from DBE students&rsquo / and instructors&rsquo / suggestions are as follows: There is a need to switch the focus from discourse-level writing to more freewriting practices through more student-centered activities / the materials should be more visually attractive / the assessment procedure applied to test students&rsquo / writing ability in the mid-terms should be standardized and the writing tasks as tested in the English Proficiency Exam (EPE) should be focused on in writing classes. On the other hand, as for the writing program at the DML, the need for the diversification of the writing genres, topics and the citation rules covered in the ENG 101 and ENG 102 courses depending on students&rsquo / departments was emphasized by the DML participants. Similarly, DBE participants underlined the need for departmentrelated content in writing materials. Also, the content course instructors agreed that the writing program applied at the DBE and the DML should be department-specific. In other words, this study displayed the necessity to conduct a needs analysis aiming to reveal DBE and DML students&rsquo / writing needs for their departments.