It has been well proven that as the skid resistance of a road surfacing decreases, the number of loss of control type crashes increases, causing road death and injuries. However, the management of skid resistance of road surfacings continues to be difficult due to the inherent and sometimes random variation in skid resistance levels over time. This study is an investigation and analysis of seasonal and short term variation of measured skid resistance in two phases. Phase 1: Regular field monitoring was undertaken using the GripTester and the Dynamic Friction Tester measurement devices on seven sites in the Auckland and Northland Regions of New Zealand was undertaken over a three year period. The effects of temperature, rainfall, contaminants, new surfacings, geometric elements and aggregate properties were analysed to investigate factors that initiate changes in the measured skid resistance of pavement surfacings. Phase 2: Laboratory prepared samples were constructed for accelerated polishing and skid resistance testing of four different aggregates (two greywackes, a basalt and an artificial iron-making melter slag aggregate). The samples were polished in an accelerated polishing machine to an ‘equilibrium skid resistance’ level (Stage 1 polishing). Contaminants were then added to the accelerated polishing process to determine the effect of varying additive, particle size and hardness in an attempt to simulate seasonal and/or short-term variations that occur in the field. The results have demonstrated that significant and previously unpredictable variations (greater than 30%) in measured skid resistance can occur over short time periods. These variations cannot be explained by any one factor. They are the result of a number of inter-related factors, including the geological properties of the aggregates and the contaminants themselves, the previous rainfall history, the road geometry, the calendar month of the year and (depending upon the measurement device), the temperature during testing. The laboratory tests demonstrate that accelerated polishing tests of aggregate samples could be prepared for testing by the Dynamic Friction Tester and that significant variations in measured skid resistance could be simulated on various aggregates in the laboratory by the addition of contaminants. The results of the testing and addition of contaminants on various aggregates resulted in significant behavioural differences which were related to the geological properties of the aggregates themselves, as well as the contaminants used in the accelerated polishing process. The findings of the research have specific relevance to three areas of industry; Road Controlling Authorities who are primarily interested in skid resistance policy, standards and management, Road Asset Managers who operate, maintain and manage condition level and the safety aspects of the road network and Crash Investigators who collect and analyse crash data primarily for legal proceedings. All three of these industry organisations need to clearly understand the inherent variability of skid resistance, the factors involved and the effects that geological and environmental variations have on skid resistance measurement. / Specific appreciation (as outlined below) is given to the significant industry partners/supporters that have helped support the research in many different ways. Firstly, I must give special thanks to Works Infrastructure Limited who have supported the research both financially and with resources almost from the outset of the research programme. The field testing data collection in the Northland Region of New Zealand would not have been possible without the support of the Whangarei Works Infrastructure team which included Peter Houba, Peter King, Matthew Findlay, Glen Kirk and the temporary traffic control team headed by Derek Phillips. Thanks also go to the Auckland Works Infrastructure testing laboratory which supplied aggregate supplies for laboratory sampling and testing and whose technicians also undertook Polished Stone Value tests on the aggregate samples. Special thanks are also given to Michael Haydon and David Hutchison from the technical management team of Works Infrastructure who have always been willing to listen to my requests and the many discussions that we have had on aspects of skid resistance, policy and technical matters. Pavement Management Services and especially Dr John Yeaman and Daniel Rich for their support for the research programme from the beginning, and secondly for financially contributing to the purchase of the Dynamic Friction Tester for the static field testing and the laboratory tests. Achnowledgement is also given to The Ports of Auckland and especially Jo Campbell of the AXIS Intermodal group that allowed access to the rail grid site as a field-testing site outside of normal port operation hours. Transit New Zealand head office staff (Mark Owen, David Cook and Chris Parkman) are also thanked for their support of the research and in enabling access to historic SCRIM and RAMM data on the Transit New Zealand state Highway network. Land Transport New Zealand (formerly Transfund New Zealand) are acknowledged for their significant financial support of the research, in terms of the Land Transport New Zealand Research project that allowed the field research data collection and analysis programme to continue for a further year and for the extension to the controlled laboratory testing.

It has been well proven that as the skid resistance of a road surfacing decreases, the number of loss of control type crashes increases, causing road death and injuries. However, the management of skid resistance of road surfacings continues to be difficult due to the inherent and sometimes random variation in skid resistance levels over time. This study is an investigation and analysis of seasonal and short term variation of measured skid resistance in two phases. Phase 1: Regular field monitoring was undertaken using the GripTester and the Dynamic Friction Tester measurement devices on seven sites in the Auckland and Northland Regions of New Zealand was undertaken over a three year period. The effects of temperature, rainfall, contaminants, new surfacings, geometric elements and aggregate properties were analysed to investigate factors that initiate changes in the measured skid resistance of pavement surfacings. Phase 2: Laboratory prepared samples were constructed for accelerated polishing and skid resistance testing of four different aggregates (two greywackes, a basalt and an artificial iron-making melter slag aggregate). The samples were polished in an accelerated polishing machine to an ‘equilibrium skid resistance’ level (Stage 1 polishing). Contaminants were then added to the accelerated polishing process to determine the effect of varying additive, particle size and hardness in an attempt to simulate seasonal and/or short-term variations that occur in the field. The results have demonstrated that significant and previously unpredictable variations (greater than 30%) in measured skid resistance can occur over short time periods. These variations cannot be explained by any one factor. They are the result of a number of inter-related factors, including the geological properties of the aggregates and the contaminants themselves, the previous rainfall history, the road geometry, the calendar month of the year and (depending upon the measurement device), the temperature during testing. The laboratory tests demonstrate that accelerated polishing tests of aggregate samples could be prepared for testing by the Dynamic Friction Tester and that significant variations in measured skid resistance could be simulated on various aggregates in the laboratory by the addition of contaminants. The results of the testing and addition of contaminants on various aggregates resulted in significant behavioural differences which were related to the geological properties of the aggregates themselves, as well as the contaminants used in the accelerated polishing process. The findings of the research have specific relevance to three areas of industry; Road Controlling Authorities who are primarily interested in skid resistance policy, standards and management, Road Asset Managers who operate, maintain and manage condition level and the safety aspects of the road network and Crash Investigators who collect and analyse crash data primarily for legal proceedings. All three of these industry organisations need to clearly understand the inherent variability of skid resistance, the factors involved and the effects that geological and environmental variations have on skid resistance measurement. / Specific appreciation (as outlined below) is given to the significant industry partners/supporters that have helped support the research in many different ways. Firstly, I must give special thanks to Works Infrastructure Limited who have supported the research both financially and with resources almost from the outset of the research programme. The field testing data collection in the Northland Region of New Zealand would not have been possible without the support of the Whangarei Works Infrastructure team which included Peter Houba, Peter King, Matthew Findlay, Glen Kirk and the temporary traffic control team headed by Derek Phillips. Thanks also go to the Auckland Works Infrastructure testing laboratory which supplied aggregate supplies for laboratory sampling and testing and whose technicians also undertook Polished Stone Value tests on the aggregate samples. Special thanks are also given to Michael Haydon and David Hutchison from the technical management team of Works Infrastructure who have always been willing to listen to my requests and the many discussions that we have had on aspects of skid resistance, policy and technical matters. Pavement Management Services and especially Dr John Yeaman and Daniel Rich for their support for the research programme from the beginning, and secondly for financially contributing to the purchase of the Dynamic Friction Tester for the static field testing and the laboratory tests. Achnowledgement is also given to The Ports of Auckland and especially Jo Campbell of the AXIS Intermodal group that allowed access to the rail grid site as a field-testing site outside of normal port operation hours. Transit New Zealand head office staff (Mark Owen, David Cook and Chris Parkman) are also thanked for their support of the research and in enabling access to historic SCRIM and RAMM data on the Transit New Zealand state Highway network. Land Transport New Zealand (formerly Transfund New Zealand) are acknowledged for their significant financial support of the research, in terms of the Land Transport New Zealand Research project that allowed the field research data collection and analysis programme to continue for a further year and for the extension to the controlled laboratory testing.

Master of Science / Department of Civil Engineering / Mustaque A. Hossain / Road surfaces may prematurely lose pavement friction due to polished aggregates on sharp horizontal curves, steep grades, or near intersections resulting in vehicle skidding. The problem gets exacerbated during wet weather. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) estimates that about 70% of wet pavement crashes can be prevented or minimized by improving pavement friction. High Friction Surface Treatment (HFST), a specially-designed thin surface application of hard aggregates and thermosetting resins like epoxy, has been proven to be an effective method to increase road surface friction. Calcined bauxite has been predominantly used in the United States as the hard aggregate in combination with an epoxy binder for HFST. However, this treatment is expensive since the calcined bauxite is imported. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of a local aggregate in HFST. Slab specimens of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) were compacted in the laboratory and treated with HFST systems incorporating both calcined bauxite and a local, hard aggregate, Picher Oklahoma flint aggregate. The treated HMA specimens were then tested with a Dynamic Friction Tester (DFT) and a Circular Track Meter (CTM) to determine the frictional coefficient and texture depth, respectively. Also, Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device Testing were conducted on these HFST systems to evaluate wearing resistance under repetitive wheel load. Field measurements of texture depths on HFST were also done. Statistical analysis was performed to compare the performance of high friction surfaces prepared with different aggregate epoxy combinations. The results show that flint aggregate can be a suitable substitute for the calcined bauxite in HFST. Field measurements also showed marked improvements in texture depth with HFST.

Rapporten är en dokumentation av ett projektarbete som genomförts under våren 2021 inom kursen examensarbete för högskoleingenjör i innovationsteknik och design på Karlstads universitet. Examinator för kursen är Leo de Vin och handledare Monica Jakobsson.  Projektets uppdragsgivare är företaget Future Eyewear Group som äger flera olika dotterföretag i hela Norden, däribland dotterföretaget Bliz som tillverkar ryggskydd. Uppdraget gick ut på att först analysera användarnas problem med ryggskydd samt finna önskemålen kring ett ryggskydd. För att därefter vidareutveckla nuvarande ryggskydd till ett nytt koncept som möter användarnas önskemål och förhindrar problemen som användarna tycker att nuvarande ryggskydd erhåller.  Metoderna för projektet följer produktutvecklingsprocessen och faserna som valdes för projektet är projektplanering, förstudie, analys av förstudie, idégenerering, konceptval och visualisering av slutkoncept. Inom fasen förstudie genomfördes användaranalys, litteraturstudie, konkurrentanalys och varumärkesanalys. Insikter från användaranalysen låg till grund för fokusfrågorna i idégenereringen som resulterade i en mängd olika lösningar. Framtagna lösningar utgjorde tilläggsfunktioner och delkoncept inom 3 olika kategorier. Delkoncepten utvärderades sedan gentemot varandra inom respektive kategori. Kvarstående delkoncept efter utvärderingen inom varje kategori granskades i en beslutmatris och sedan återstod endast 1 eller 2 lösningar inom varje kategori. Vid möte med företaget togs beslut om vilka delkoncept som tillsammans skulle bli slutkonceptet. Slutkonceptet blev ett underställ med en större ficka på ryggen där skyddsplatta kan placeras och även avlägsnas vid önskan. Längst ner på ryggen av understället är en mindre ficka placerad. Fickan innehåller en body som kan fästas på underställets framsida för att hålla understället på plats vid rörelse. Bodyns två knappar fästs med knappar på framsidan, där valmöjligheten finns att välja mellan tre olika höjdnivåer. Vid sidan av magen på understället är elastisk tråd som är justerbar med dragsko, för att understället ska kunna justeras till olika kroppstyper. Högst upp på ryggen finns en ficka för en luva som kan användas under hjälmen. Understället har även två fickor, en på framsida bröstkorg som ger förvaring av värdesaker och en ficka på vänstra armen för att erbjuda förvaring av liftkort. / This rapport is a documentation of a project that was carried out during spring of 2021 as part of the course “Examensarbete för högskoleingenjör i innovationsteknik och design”, at Karlstad University. The examinator of the course is Leo de Vin and supervisor is Monica Jakobsson.  The project was carried out on mission by the company Future Eyewear Group which owns multiple subsidiaries across the Nordics, for instance the company Bliz which manufactures back protectors. The assignment was to first analyse the users' problems with back protector and find the wishes for a back protector. To then further develop the current back protection to a new concept that meets the users' wishes and prevents the problems that the users think the current back protection receives.   The method used for the project follows the product development process, and the phases chosen for the project are project planning, pre study, analysis of pre study, idea generation, choice of concept as well as visualization of the end concept. As part of the pre study phase, a user analysis, literature study, competitive analysis and brand analysis were made.  The insights from the user analysis provided a foundation for the focus questions in the idea generation phase, which later resulted in various solutions. The solutions consisted of additional features and sub concepts within three different categories. The sub concepts were then evaluated against each other within each category, and the concepts still remaining after the evaluation were then reviewed in a decision matrix. At the end of the process there were only one or two solutions remaining in each category.  During a meeting with the case company decisions were made on which sub concepts that together were going to form the final concept. The final concept was determined to be an undergarment with a back pocket where a protection plate can be placed and removed as wished. The pocket contains a body that can be attached to the front of the undergarment to keep the undergarment in place when moving. The body's two buttons are attached with buttons on the front, where you can choose between three different height levels. At the side of the stomach area, an adjustable elastic thread with a drawstring is attached, allowing the undergarment to be adjusted to different body types and sizes. In the top back area, there is a pocket for a hood which can be used under the helmet. The undergarment also has two additional pockets, one at the chest area which can be used to carry valuables, and one on the left arm where a lift pass can be stored.

Pavement surface characteristics are important to both the safety of the pavement surface and the comfort of the drivers. As of yet, texture and friction measurements have not been incorporated into the design of pavement surfaces. Seven different wearing surface mixtures, placed at the Virginia Smart Road pavement facility, were studied over a one year time period for both friction and texture properties. A locked wheel skid trailer and a laser profilometer were used to assess the pavement surface characteristics. Laboratory testing of the pavement wearing surface mixtures was performed to determine volumetric and mixture specific characteristics. Testing included gyratory compaction, specific gravity, maximum theoretical specific gravity, ignition testing, and gradation analysis. These material properties were used to study the impact of material properties on pavement surface characteristics. The pavement surface characteristics were analyzed using regression analysis with some measured and calculated parameters relevant to the pavement wearing surface properties. Analysis variables included the skid number at 64 kilometers per hour measured using the ASTM E501 (smooth) and ASTM E524 (ribbed) tires, the mean profile depth, the slope of a linear SN-speed model, the skid number at zero speed from the Pennsylvania State University (1) model, and the International Friction Index parameters. Analysis determined that testing particulars such as the grade of the test did not significantly affect the measured skid number. However, there is a significant difference between the skid numbers measured using the two tires. Additionally, the relationship between speed and skid resistance is assessed differently between the two test tires. Regression analysis concluded that there is a relationship between surface characteristics and HMA design properties such as the VMA, VTM, Percent Passing #200 sieve, and Binder Type. The influence of these variables on each of the analysis parameters varied. / Master of Science

Wet-pavement friction is a public concern because of its direct relation to highway safety. Both short- and long-term seasonal variations have been observed in friction measurements. These variations have been attributed to different factors, such as traffic, rainfall, and temperature. Since both the tire rubber and the HMA pavement surface are viscoelastic materials, which are physically sensitive to temperature changes, temperature should affect the measured frictional properties. Although several researchers have attempted to explain and quantify the effect of temperature on pavement friction, it remains to be fully understood. The objective of this research was to quantify the effect of pavement surface temperature on the frictional properties of the pavement-tire interface. To accomplish this, tests conducted on seven different wearing surfaces at the Virginia Smart Road under different climatic conditions were analyzed. Due to the short duration of this study and the low traffic at the facility, only short-term effects of temperature on pavement friction were investigated. To accomplish the predefined objective, skid test data from both ribbed and smooth tires were collected over two and a half years (from January 2000 to August 2002) and then analyzed. Six sets of tests were conducted under different environmental conditions. The pavement and air temperatures during each test were obtained using thermocouples located directly under the wearing course (38mm below the surface) and close to the pavement surface, respectively. Regression analyses were conducted to determine the effect of pavement temperature on the measured skid number at different speeds, as well as on friction model parameters. The main conclusion of this investigation is that pavement temperature has a significant effect on pavement frictional measurements and on the sensitivity of the measurements to the test speed. Both the skid number at zero speed (SN0) and the percent normalized gradient (PNG) tend to decrease with increased pavement temperature. This results in the pavement temperature on the measured skid number being dependent on the testing speed. For the standard wearing surface mixes studied at low speed (lower than 32 km/hr), pavement friction tends to decrease with increased pavement temperature. At high speed, the effect is reverted and pavement friction tends to increase with increased pavement temperature. Temperature-dependent friction versus speed models were established for one of the mixes studied. These models can be used to define temperature correction factors. / Master of Science

Friction is one of the essential aspects of pavement performance and safety. Unfortunately, the rate at which the friction data are being collected exceeds the rate at which the data can be proficiently analyzed. Furthermore, the Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) lacks long-term trend analysis for the many years of locked-wheel skid trailer (LWST) data collected in Utah. In addition, UDOT is missing a statistically adequate correlation equation between friction-testing devices. Likewise, only one method is used in Utah to prequalify aggregates for use in pavements. Finally, there has not been an investigation of the potential use of lithium silicate solution in Utah as a hardening agent to decrease the rate of friction loss. This research consists of five objectives. The first objective was to investigate pavement friction factors that influence skid resistance; methods of measuring skid resistance in the laboratory and the field, including correlations between test results; methods of evaluating aggregate sources; and methods of enhancing skid resistance of asphalt pavements through a comprehensive literature review on these subjects. The second objective was to investigate temporal trends in skid numbers measured using the LWST on Utah highways with different surface treatment types. The third objective was to develop a three-way correlation between the skid number measured with the LWST in the field, the British pendulum number measured with the British pendulum tester (BPT) in the field, and the polish value measured with the BPT in the laboratory. The fourth objective was to investigate selected performance-related properties of aggregates used to produce surface treatments at several field sites representing Utah conditions. The fifth objective was to examine the potential benefits of lithium silicate treatment for improving the resistance of aggregates to polishing. The scope of the research for the five objectives included statistical analysis, field testing, and laboratory experimentation. The findings include, first, a literature review that identified four critical deficiencies in Utah’s friction-related literature, which formed the basis of the remaining four objectives. Second, a statistical analysis of 9 years of LWST data indicated above-average skid values across Utah’s pavement network. Third, correlations were evaluated for multiple friction-testing devices. Fourth, X-ray diffraction testing methods were found to compare favorably to the accelerated polish test. Fifth and finally, the effects of lithium silicate solution on polish-susceptible aggregates were documented. This research has substantially advanced the body of knowledge on pavement friction testing and improving the resistance of aggregates to polishing in Utah through laboratory and field experimentation

Svetlana Fortner-Henderson grew up experiencing abuse, sexual assault, and drug and alcohol abuse within the home. She suffered hearing loss as a child, which impacted her education. She went to college, attended graduate school, and worked in the field of environmental toxicology and regulatory compliance. She volunteered in many capacities that influenced her calling to become an educator. She agreed to teach were she was ‘called,’ as she considers that as the implementation of ministry of social justice through science education. She teaches in a high-trauma, deep inner-city setting, where students have experienced similar types of trauma that she experienced. She follows the lives of three students that derive from various backgrounds. These backgrounds contribute to the assets, strengths, and opportunities for growth socially and academically for these students. Svetlana is able to use the tools inherent and applied to educate the three students to benefit other students that have similar opportunities for educational and social/emotional growth. Svetlana deeply reflects on the impact she has made with her students and opportunities she sees for continued personal development within the profession. During her ethography, she modifies and massages her techniques in order to extact quality and usable content, as she seeks to be an effective teacher within a high trauma and high risk school and community. She also modifies her techniques as she believes in continuous improvement of herself and the students she has chosen to work with.

The limitations of current simulation packages in addressing the true longitudinal behaviour of railway bogie dynamics during braking/traction has prompted the development of a Rail Bogie Dynamics (RBD) program in this thesis. The RBD program offers novel features for the calculation of the speed profile as a function of the brake torque as well as explicitly determining wheelset angular velocity. With such capability, the speed profile is no longer treated as an input calculated as a priori as required by most of the current simulation systems. The RBD program has been developed using a formulation that includes the wheelset pitch degree of freedom explicitly with a coordinate reference system that is fixed in space and time. The formulation has made the simulation of the bogie dynamics during braking/traction possible in a natural way using the brake/traction torque as the input and the resulting speed profile as the output without any need for working out the speed profile as a priori. Consequently, severe dynamics during braking such as the wheelset skid and the onset of wheel climb derailment can be modelled and critical parameters investigated using the RBD program. The RBD program has been validated, where possible, through a series of simulations using a commercial software package (VAMPIRE). For cases which cannot be simulated by VAMPIRE such as the wheelset skid, a novel experimental program has been designed and commissioned in the Heavy Testing Laboratory of the Central Queensland University as reported in this thesis. One of the possible applications of the RBD program in examining the effect of asymmetric brake shoe force in bogies equipped with one-side push brake shoe arrangement is illustrated in this thesis. It is believed that the model and RBD program will have significant benefit in understanding the true longitudinal behaviour of wagons in suburban passenger trains that operate under braking/ traction torques for most of their travel. Similar studies will also be useful to freight train wagon dynamics during entry and exit of speed restriction zones and tight curves.

Skid-steer loaders are also called mini loaders. Skid-steer loaders are capable of zero turning radiuses, which make them extremely maneuverable and suitable for confined spaces. The aim of this thesis study is to design the loader mechanism for skid-steer loaders. Primarily, the loader mechanism synthesis will be performed to determine the basic link dimensions for the mechanism of the loader. Genetic algorithm will be used in the design process. Besides, the hydraulic cylinders dimensions and working pressure of the loader mechanism will be chosen according to the forces that will be applied. After the link dimensions of the loader are determined, 3D modeling of the loader mechanism will be performed. Afterwards, the finite element analysis of the system will be carried out. Finally, improvements will be made on the model according to the results of the analysis.