Public water utilities are tasked with providing high quality, inexpensive water often sourced from watersheds representing a diverse mix of public and private land ownership. There is increasing recognition amongst water resource managers of the role that private landowners play in determining downstream water quality, but bringing together landowners with a wide variety of land management objectives under the umbrella of watershed stewardship has proven difficult. Recently, a large number of "Payment for Watershed Services" programs have aimed to engage private landowners in watershed stewardship initiatives by offering financial incentives for adopting watershed best management practices. However, a growing field of research suggests that financial incentives alone may be of limited utility to encourage widespread and long-standing behavior change, and instead understanding landowner attitudes and non-financial barriers to stewardship program enrollment has become a focus of research. This research examines a population of rural landowners representing a diversity of agricultural, forestry, recreational, and investment objectives in the Clackamas River watershed, Oregon. I designed and distributed a mail and web-based survey instrument intended to measure land uses and land ownership objectives, attitudes towards watershed stewardship programs, barriers to enrollment in stewardship programs, and preferred incentives and goals that would promote enrollment. I received 281 valid responses for a response rate of 29%. I conducted two primary analyses: one focused on relating attitudes and barriers to intent to enroll in a watershed stewardship program, and one focused on identifying how diverse landowners differ according to factors influencing enrollment in stewardship programs. I found that landowners did not report financial considerations to be a primary barrier to enrollment and expressed low interest in receiving financial incentives. Instead, landowners reported that primary barriers related to lack of trust, ecological understanding, and concerns that stewardship program enrollment would be incompatible with their land management objectives. I do not discount the potential utility of financial incentives under certain circumstances, but emphasize the importance of addressing these other considerations before incentives can make a meaningful impact. I compared how barriers to enrollment were perceived by landowners with different land management objectives relating to production, investment, and conservation. I found that landowner attitudes were differentiated from one another primarily by their use of land for production purposes; however, I found a large amount of diversity between producers and non-producers in the degree to which they considered investment and conservation objectives in their land management, and these two variables added further explanatory power to understanding fine-scale differences in how landowner typologies relate to conservation programs.

Les rivières reçoivent de l'azote de leurs bassins versants et elles constituent les derniers sites de transformations des nutriments avant leur livraison aux zones côtières. Les transformations de l’azote inorganique dissous en azote gazeux sont très variables et peuvent avoir un impact à la fois sur l’eutrophisation des côtes et les émissions de gaz à effet de serre à l’échelle globale. Avec l’augmentation de la charge en azote d’origine anthropique vers les écosystèmes aquatiques, les modèles d’émissions de gaz à effet de serre prédisent une augmentation des émissions d’oxyde nitreux (N2O) dans les rivières. Les mesures directes de N2O dans le Lac Saint-Pierre (LSP), un élargissement du Fleuve Saint-Laurent (SLR) indiquent que bien qu’étant une source nette de N2O vers l'atmosphère, les flux de N2O dans LSP sont faibles comparés à ceux des autres grandes rivières et fleuves du monde. Les émissions varient saisonnièrement et inter-annuellement à cause des changements hydrologiques. Les ratios d’émissions N2O: N2 sont également influencés par l’hydrologie et de faibles ratios sont observés dans des conditions de débit d'eau plus élevée et de charge en N élevé. Dans une analyse effectuée sur plusieurs grandes rivières, la charge hydraulique des systèmes semble moduler la relation entre les flux de N2O annuels et les concentrations de nitrate dans les rivières. Dans SLR, des tapis de cyanobactéries colonisant les zones à faible concentration de nitrate sont une source nette d’azote grâce à leur capacité de fixer l’azote atmosphérique (N2). Étant donné que la fixation a lieu pendant le jour alors que les concentrations d'oxygène dans la colonne d'eau sont sursaturées, nous supposons que la fixation de l’azote est effectuée dans des micro-zones d’anoxie et/ou possiblement par des diazotrophes hétérotrophes. La fixation de N dans les tapis explique le remplacement de près de 33 % de la perte de N par dénitrification dans tout l'écosystème au cours de la période d'étude. Dans la portion du fleuve Hudson soumis à la marée, la dénitrification et la production de N2 est très variable selon le type de végétation. La dénitrification est associée à la dynamique en oxygène dissous particulière à chaque espèce durant la marée descendante. La production de N2 est extrêmement élevée dans les zones occupées par les plantes envahissantes à feuilles flottantes (Trapa natans) mais elle est négligeable dans la végétation indigène submergée. Une estimation de la production de N2 dans les lits de Trapa durant l’été, suggère que ces lits représentent une zone très active d’élimination de l’azote. En effet, les grands lits de Trapa ne représentent que 2,7% de la superficie totale de la portion de fleuve étudiée, mais ils éliminent entre 70 et 100% de l'azote total retenu dans cette section pendant les mois d'été et contribuent à près de 25% de l’élimination annuelle d’azote. / Rivers receive nitrogen (N) from their watershed and are the final sites of nutrient processing before delivery to coastal waters. Transformations of dissolved inorganic N (DIN) to gaseous N are highly variable and can impact both coastal eutrophication and greenhouse gas emissions. With anthropogenic N loading to aquatic ecosystems on the rise, nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from rivers should increase. Direct measurements of N2O from lake St. Pierre (LSP), an enlargement of the St. Lawrence River (SLR) indicate that although LSP is a net atmospheric source of N2O to the atmosphere fluxes are low compared to others rivers. Emissions are seasonally and inter-annually highly variable due to changes in hydrological conditions. N2O: N2 is also influenced by hydrology and lower ratios are observed in conditions of higher water discharge and elevated N charge into the ecosystem. In a cross system analysis, hydraulic load mitigates the relation between annual N2O flux and nitrate concentrations in rivers. In SLR, cyanobacterial mats colonizing low nitrate areas are a net source of N with high negative di-nitrogen (N2) fluxes. Given that fixation occurred during daylight and that oxygen concentrations in the water column were supersaturated, we hypothesize that N2 fixation is performed by the dominant cyanobacteria in anoxic micro-zone of the mat and/ or possibly by heterotrophic diazotrophs. Our estimates indicate that N fixation in the mats account for the replacement of up to 33% of the N loss via denitrification in the entire ecosystem during the study period. In the tidal Hudson River N2 production is highly variable between vegetated shallows and was associated with species-driven differences in dissolved oxygen (DO) dynamics during the ebb tide. N2 production was extremely high in invasive floating-leaved plants (Trapa natans) but was insignificant in submersed native vegetation. An estimate of summertime N2 production in Trapa beds suggests that these beds are a major seasonal hotspot for N removal. Large Trapa beds represent only 2.7% of the total area of the tidal Hudson but they remove between 70 and 100% of the total N retained in this section of the river during summer months and contribute to as much as 25% of the annual N removal.

Le recours à des épandages d'amendements calco-magnésiens dans les forêts acidifiées peut représenter une alternative intéressante pour corriger l'acidification des sols et la perte d'éléments nutritifs engendrés par des décennies de dépôts atmosphériques acides. Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de cette thèse sont d'évaluer les effets d'amendements calco-magnésiens sur (i) la diversité taxonomique et la structure des communautés des macroinvertébrés de sol forestier et sur (ii) deux processus fonctionnels associés notamment à l'activité des vers de terre, tels que la structuration du sol et l'évolution des humus. Au cours de nos travaux, trois sites localisés dans les Vosges (nord-est, France) ont été étudiés : deux massifs forestiers (sur grès et granite) en moyenne montagne, ayant fait l'objet d'amendements aériens en 2003 et la forêt domaniale de Humont située dans les collines sous-vosgiennes, où des amendements en 1991 et 2008 ont été réalisés. Les résultats montrent que 4 ans après amendement sur les bassins versants en moyenne montagne, l'abondance totale de la communauté de macrofaune a diminué, alors que les richesses spécifiques sont similaires. Cependant, la composition des communautés diffère avec moins de 50 % d'espèces communes aux sites amendés et témoins. Une diminution de l'abondance des prédateurs a également été observée alors que la plupart des détritivores ont été favorisés par l'amendement. Les études in vitro montrent également son effet positif sur les activités de structuration du sol par les vers de terre (production de turricules et construction de galeries). En forêt de Humont, les amendements ont eu un effet majeur à moyen terme (4 ans) et à long terme (20 ans) sur la population d'Aporrectodea velox, espèce endémique des Vosges. De part sa biomasse importante, cette augmentation de densité favorise l'amélioration des caractéristiques physico-chimiques du sol forestier tels que la structuration des sols et la morphologie des humus. / The use of liming (Ca-Mg) on acidified forest can be interesting to counteract soil acidification and loss of nutrients caused by decades of acid atmospheric deposition. In this context, the aims of this work were to assess liming effect on (i) taxonomical diversity and community structure of soil macro-invertebrates and on (ii) two associated functional processes related to earthworms: soil structuration and humus evolution. The PhD project was realised in three sites from the Vosges mountains (North-eastern, France): two forest mountain catchments (one lying on sandstone and the other on granite) limed in 2003 and the public hill forest of Humont at a lower altitude limed in 1991 and 2008. Results showed that 4 years after liming in mountain forest, the total abundance of macro-invertebrates decreased, while the species richness were similar. However, the community structure strongly differed, and less than 50% of the species were common to limed and control sites. Moreover, 43 species appeared to be indicators of liming. Predator taxa abundance decreased whereas the detritivorous were favoured by lime addition. The in vitro experiments showed a positive effect of liming on soil structuration by earthworm activities (cast production and burrowing activities). In the Humont forest, liming at medium-term (4 years) and long term (20 years) have an important effect on the Aporrectodea velox population, an endemic vosgian species. Related to its high biomass, this increase strongly improved soil physicochemical parameters such as soil structure and humus morphology.

Face aux changements globaux, au déclin de la biodiversité et à l'augmentation de la population urbaine, la demande des professionnels de la construction pour intégrer la biodiversité dans leurs pratiques est de plus en plus forte. Ma thèse a eu pour objectif de (1) faire un état des lieux de la prise en compte de la biodiversité dans les aménagements urbains et (2) développer de nouveaux outils afin d'aider les aménageurs à améliorer leurs pratiques. Dans une première partie consacrée au bilan biodiversité, (1) nous avons émis des doutes quant à la pertinence de l'utilisation des toitures végétalisées, telles qu'elles sont conçues actuellement, en tant qu'éléments intégrés à un réseau écologique ; (2) l'étude des mesures environnementales mises en place dans 54 éco‐quartiers européens (principalement en France) a montré que les concepteurs se préoccupaient principalement des bénéfices environnementaux en termes d'énergie, de transport, de déchets et d'eau, et plus rarement de biodiversité ; (3) l'ACV (analyse du cycle de vie), un outil fréquemment utilisés par les aménageurs pour calculer les impacts environnementaux d'un produit (toit vert, bâtiment, quartier) intègre mal la biodiversité dans ses calculs, et son utilisation pour comparer différents éléments verts pourrait uniformiser les pratiques et ainsi conduire à une homogénéisation de la biodiversité et à l'altération du fonctionnement de l'écosystème. Pour aider les aménageurs à mieux considérer la biodiversité dans leurs pratiques, nous avons participé à l'amélioration de l'outil Profil-Biodiversité créé par Frank Derrien et développé notre propre outil (BioDi(v)Strict) basé sur la diversité des habitats et la présence de quatre groupes d'espèces bio-indicatrices afin de traduire au mieux la dynamique écologique d'un site. Ces deux outils ont été appliqués sur un site pilote : la Cité Descartes (à Noisy-le- Grand et Champs-sur-Marne). Dans le but de faire émerger une prise de conscience des différents acteurs locaux sur la nécessité de préserver la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques associés, nous avons développé un outil de concertation pour l'aménagement du territoire (NewDistrict), basé sur une modélisation d'un système multi-agents (SMA) et d'un jeu de rôles autour de l'étalement urbain et ses conséquences environnementales. / In a context of global changes, decline of biodiversity and increase of the urban population, the request of urban developers to integrate biodiversity into their practices is increasingly strong. My PhD thesis aimed to (1) make a review of the consideration of biodiversity in urban development, and (2) develop new tools to help developers to improve their practices. In the first part focused on biodiversity review, (1) we have expressed some doubts about the relevance of the use of current green roofs as possible integrated element of an ecological network; (2) The study of environmental measures implemented in 54 European eco-districts (mainly in France) showed that designers appeared to focus primarily on environmental benefits in terms of energy, transport, waste, water, and more rarely on biodiversity conservation; (3) LCA (life cycle analysis), a tool commonly used by developers to calculate the environmental impacts of a product (a green roof , a building or a district) integrates badly biodiversity in its calculations, and its use to compare different green elements could standardize practices which lead to an homogenization of biodiversity associated with the deterioration of ecosystem functioning. To help developers to better consider biodiversity in their practices, we have firstly contributed to the improvement of the tool «Profil-Biodiversité» created by Frank Derrien, and secondly, we have developed our own tool (BioDi(v)Strict) based on the diversity of habitats and the presence of four groups of bioindicator species to better reflect the ecological dynamic of a site. Both tools have been applied on a pilot site: the Cité Descartes (in Noisy-le- Grand and Champs-sur‐Marne). Finally, in order to let emerging a collective biodiversity awareness for the different local actors, we have developed a tool (NewDistrict) based on a multi‐agent system (MAS) model combined with a role-playing game constructed in a context of urban sprawl.

This report aims to answer the question “What is the relationship between adopting a landscape conservation approach and human well-being?” through a case study of the Santa Cruz Mountains Stewardship Network. The Network is a collective that involves a variety of stakeholders that belong to a multidimensional scale and focuses on achieving a wide spectrum of goals. This research looks at the landscape conservation approach, which the Network uses, through the lens of strategic sustainable development by taking a systems perspective. The eight sustainability principles, which are used for the analysis, function as system boundaries for sustainability to aim towards human well-being. The environmental sphere is connected with the social sphere and make up the socio-ecological system and should not be considered separately. This research aims to make this connection clearer to compliment the lack of knowledge on this topic. The main conclusion is that by operating within the 8SPs and using a landscape conservation approach, organizations can contribute directly or indirectly to human well-being and the health of ecosystems. Some of the benefits for humans are an increase in physical and mental health and having the opportunity to find meaning by being out in nature.

A extração de produtos florestais é uma estratégia de sustento importante para populações que vivem próximas a remanescentes de florestas tropicais. Entre estes produtos, a carne silvestre é fonte importante de proteína e renda monetária. A sobreçaca, no entanto, pode levar à extinção local de espécies, comprometendo a integridade das florestas tropicais e o sustento de populações humanas. Como consequência, pode também levar à diminuição do valor atribuído às florestas pelos moradores, incentivando a sua conversão a outras formas de uso da terra. Sabe-se que fatores econômicos, como renda monetária e riqueza, são determinantes importantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre. Porém, tem sido sugerido que o efeito destes indicadores econômicos dependa do contexto ambiental - em especial, a cobertura florestal, associada à disponibilidade de animais para caça e a distância ao centro urbano, associada ao acesso a outras fontes de renda e proteína - e do contexto cultural, em particular, a região de origem dos moradores. No entanto, estudos prévios não consideraram todos estes fatores simultaneamente. Além disso, pouco ainda se sabe sobre qual o valor atribuído às florestas por populações rurais e sua relação com a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre. Através de questionários estruturados aplicados por meio de entrevista à população rural de uma região extensa e heterogênea na Amazônia oriental, esta tese teve como objetivos investigar: (i) o efeito de fatores ambientais em maior escala como determinantes da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 1); (ii) a importância relativa e as interações entre fatores em escalas distintas - econômicos, culturais e ambientais - na determinação da caça e do consumo de carne silvestre (Capítulo 2) e; (iii) se a caça e o consumo de carne silvestre, bem como o desmatamento, que pode comprometer esse recurso, estão associados à percepção do valor das florestas (Capítulo 3). No Capítulo 1, os resultados indicam que fatores ambientais são determinantes mais importantes da caça do que do consumo de carne silvestre, que é mais frequente que a caça, sugerindo a relevância do compartilhamento e/ou comércio como formas de obtenção de carne silvestre. Enquanto o consumo de carne de silvestre foi um pouco mais frequente em áreas remotas e mais florestadas, a caça foi mais frequente em áreas mais florestadas, mas também em áreas mais próximas a centros urbanos. Assim, os resultados sugerem que é improvável que a pressão de caça diminua com a crescente migração para áreas urbanas que hoje se observa na Amazônia. O Capítulo 2 traz evidências de que o consumo de carne silvestre, e principalmente a caça, dependem não só do contexto ambiental, mas também do cultural, e que os efeitos de indicadores econômicos dependem de fatores ambientais. A caça e o consumo de carne silvestre foram mais frequentes nas famílias de origem na região Amazônica, entre aqueles que dependem mais de atividades de subsistência, e ambos aumentaram com a renda monetária em áreas próximas a centros urbanos e/ou menos florestadas, mas diminuíram com a renda monetária em áreas remotas e/ou florestadas. Isto sugere que o sucesso de intervenções econômicas que visem tanto à redução da pobreza quanto à conservação da biodiversidade depende do contexto ambiental, e é muito mais provável em áreas mais florestadas e remotas. Os resultados do Capítulo 3 indicam que a quantidade de carne silvestre consumida influencia positivamente a percepção do valor utilitário da floresta, enquanto que a quantidade de florestas remanescentes no entorno influencia positivamente a percepção de seu valor intrínseco. Assim, para além de estratégias que visem o bem-estar humano via incentivos econômicos, há oportunidade para iniciativas que considerem outros aspectos do bem-estar associados aos serviços providos pela floresta - sejam recursos como a carne silvestre ou benefícios culturais e estéticos. Ao mesmo tempo, os resultados apontam o potencial de um perigoso ciclo de desvalorização da floresta, em que o desmatamento leva a diminuição da percepção do seu valor, que, por sua vez, pode agravar o desmatamento, indicando a urgência de investimentos em iniciativas de conservação nas paisagens mais alteradas / The extraction of forest products is an important livelihood strategy for human populations living in and around tropical forest remnants. Among these products, bushmeat is an important source of protein and monetary income. However, overhunting can lead to local species extinction, compromising the integrity of tropical forests and the livelihoods of human populations. As a consequence, it can also lead to a decrease in the value local people attribute to forests, further promoting land conversion. It is well known that economic factors, such as monetary income and asset-wealth, are important drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption. However, it has been suggested that the effect of economic factors depend on the environmental context - especially forest cover, associated with game availability, and distance to urban centers, associated with alternative sources of protein and income - and on the cultural context, particularly the region of origin of residents. Nevertheless, previous studies did not consider all these factors simultaneously. In addition, little is known about the value attributed to forests by rural populations and its association with bushmeat hunting and consumption. Using questionnaire-based interviews with the rural population of a wide heterogeneous region in eastern Amazonia, this thesis aimed at investigating (i) the effects of large-scale environmental factors as drivers of bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 1); (ii) the relative importance and interactions between factors at different scales - economic, cultural and environmental - in driving bushmeat hunting and consumption (Chapter 2) and; (iii) whether bushmeat hunting and consumption, as well as deforestation, which may compromise this resource, are associated with the perception of forest values (Chapter 3). In Chapter 1, the results indicate that environmental factors are more important drivers of hunting than of bushmeat consumption, which is widespread, suggesting significant bushmeat sharing and/ or trading. While bushmeat consumption was slightly more likely in remote and more forested areas, hunting was more likely in more forested areas but also in areas closer to urban centers. These results suggest that hunting pressure is unlikely to decrease with the increasing migration to urban areas nowadays observed in the Amazon. Chapter 2 brings evidences that bushmeat consumption, and especially hunting, depend not only on the environmental context but also on the cultural context, and that the effects of economic variables depend on environmental factors. Bushmeat hunting and consumption were more likely in households with Amazonian origin, with greater reliance on subsistence activities and both increased with monetary income in less remote and/or less forested areas, but decreased with monetary income in more remote and/or more forested areas. This result suggests that the success of economic interventions aiming at both poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation depend on the environmental context, and is more likely in more forested and remote areas. The results of Chapter 3 indicate that the amount of consumed bushmeat positively influences the perception of forest instrumental value, while forest cover in the surroundings positively influences the perception of forest intrinsic value. These results suggest that, beyond strategies that aim at human well-being through economic incentives, there is opportunity for initiatives that consider other aspects of well-being associated with services provided by forests - whether resources such as bushmeat or cultural and aesthetic benefits. At the same time, the results suggest the potential for a dangerous reinforcing cycle of forest depreciation, in which deforestation erodes perceptions of forest values, which may in turn facilitate further deforestation, indicating the urgent need to invest in conservation initiatives in more altered landscapes

Après des décennies de croissance rapide du droit international de l’environnement, il est aujourd’hui crucial d’assurer l’effectivité et l’efficacité de cette branche du droit. Cela implique, entre autres, de garantir la flexibilité et la réactivité des instruments existants. Cette thèse propose d’explorer les mécanismes et phénomènes permettant aux régimes internationaux environnementaux de s’adapter aux évolutions scientifiques, politiques et juridiques en s’appuyant sur un cas d’étude précis : l’influence de la Plateforme intergouvernementale politique et scientifique pour la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques (IPBES) en Méditerranée. L’IPBES a été récemment établie afin de pallier l’inefficacité des politiques environnementales en matière de biodiversité. En partant du postulat du succès de cette plateforme, cette thèse expose les divers moyens juridiques d’influences dont celle-ci dispose dans la région. Nous verrons ainsi que l’expertise institutionnelle des régimes méditerranéens constitue une modalité d’influence directe tandis que les nombreux phénomènes de diffusion normative lui assurent une influence indirecte. La Méditerranée comporte à une échelle réduite tous les enjeux du droit international de l’environnement. Une telle étude permettra donc de mettre en lumière des aspects rarement étudiés de cette branche du droit / After decades of growth, it is now crucial to ensure that International environmental law is efficient. This implies, among other things, to guarantee the flexibility and reactiveness of existing instruments. This thesis aims to develop an analysis of the different mechanisms and phenomenon that allow International environmental regimes to adapt to scientific, political and legal evolution. It does so by focusing on a specific case study: the influence of the Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) in the Mediterranean. The IPBES was recently established in order to cope with the inefficiency of current measures for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. By assuming the success of this platform, this thesis will explore the different legal means of influence the IPBES has in the region. In doing so, we will see that the institutionalized expertise of Mediterranean regimes allows for a direct influence of the platform, while norm diffusion in the region allows for an indirect influence. The Mediterranean holds within itself all of the stakes of International environmental law. By focusing on the region, this study hopes to shine light on aspects of International environmental law that are seldom studied

A Avaliação de Ciclo de Vida (ACV) é um método estruturado, compreensivo e padronizado a nível internacional que quantifica informações sobre emissões, recursos consumidos e impactos ambientais potenciais de produtos através do seu ciclo de vida. Uma das fases do estudo, a Avaliação de Impacto do Ciclo de Vida (AICV), refere-se ao processo quantitativo e/ou qualitativo aplicado na avaliação dos impactos associados ao inventário do ciclo de vida. Dentre os impactos ambientais abordados na AICV estão aqueles relacionados ao uso da terra, sendo avaliados segundo duas vertentes: impactos sobre a biodiversidade e impactos sobre Serviços Ecossistêmicos. A modelagem dos impactos dos serviços ecossistêmicos na ACV ainda apresenta limitações e alguns erros conceituais como, por exemplo, não avaliar de fato os benefícios fornecidos ao homem. Além disso, um dos grandes desafios na ACV refere-se à diferenciação espacial nos procedimentos metodológicos de AICV, sobretudo para impactos devido ao uso da terra. Assim, o principal objetivo desde estudo é discutir a inserção do conceito de serviços ecossistêmicos na ACV e obter fatores de caracterização de impactos em serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados ao solo para a AICV, aplicáveis de maneira regionalizada para o Brasil. A revisão de literatura e comparação do mecanismo ambiental para os impactos do uso da terra na AICV com o modelo em cascata de serviços ecossistêmicos possibilitou o desenvolvimento de um novo modelo conceitual para serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados solo. Cada uma das etapas do modelo de cascata foi alinhada à terminologia da ACV para coincidir com os níveis de modelagem de ponto intermediário e de danos ao mesmo tempo considerando os principais processos, funções, serviços, benefícios e valores relacionados ao solo. Além disso, foram calculados fatores de caracterização para impactos aos serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados à fertilidade do solo através da aplicação de um modelo de caracterização de AICV espacialmente diferenciado. O procedimento metodológico envolveu (i) a definição do mecanismo ambiental, tendo como indicador o teor de Carbono Orgânico do Solo (COS), (ii) a definição da Vegetação Natural Potencial como situação de referência e (iii) a definição das unidades biogeográficas de análise denominadas Associação Solo-Vegetação (ASV). Com base nestes parâmetros, foram calculados os estoques de COS para 32 classes diferentes de uso da terra e os estoques de COS para as situações referência, necessários para o cálculo dos impactos resultantes do uso da terra. Foram calculados e disponibilizados mais de três mil fatores de caracterização aos usuários de ACV, aplicáveis em 32 classes diferentes de uso da terra para 74 unidades biogeográficas (ASV). Além desses, foram obtidos fatores de caracterização também para as 27 unidades federativas do país, que apesar de estarem agregados em divisões políticas, levam em consideração dados regionais de COS. Por fim, os resultados e discussões deste trabalho contribuem na integração de dois campos de estudo e podem auxiliar ao melhor entendimento do sistema de produtos, não apenas focando em danos ambientais, mas também possibilitando a identificação de impactos positivos e agregação de valor. / Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a structured, comprehensive and standardized method at international level that quantifies information on emissions, resources consumed and potential environmental impacts of products through their life cycle. One of it phases, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), refers to the quantitative and/or qualitative process applied in assessing the impacts associated with the life cycle inventory. Among the environmental impacts addressed in LCIA are those related to land use, being evaluated according to two pathways: impacts on biodiversity and impacts on ecosystem services. The ecosystem services impact modelling on LCA still presents limitations and some conceptual errors, such as not actually evaluating the benefits provided to humans. In addition, one of the major challenges in LCA relates to the spatial differentiation in LCIA methodological procedures, especially for impacts due to land use. Thus, the main goal of the present study is to discuss the ecosystem services concept integration in LCA and obtain characterization factors of soil-related ecosystem services impacts, regionally applicable to Brazil. The literature review and the LCA environmental mechanism of land use impacts and the cascade model of ecosystem services comparison allowed the development of a new conceptual model for soil-related ecosystem services. Each one of these steps in the cascade model was aligned with the LCA\'s terminology to match the midpoint and endpoint modelling levels while considering the key processes, functions, services, benefits, and values related to the soil. In addition, characterization factors for ecosystem services related to soil fertility were calculated applying a spatially differentiated characterization model. The methodological procedure involved the (i) environmental mechanism definition, establishing the Soil Organic Carbon content (SOC) as an indicator, (ii) the definition of Potential Natural Vegetation as a reference situation and (iii) the definition of the biogeographic analysis units denominated Soil Vegetation Association (SVA). Based on these parameters, SOC stocks were calculated for 32 different land use classes and SOC stocks for reference situations allowing the calculation of impacts resulting from land use. More than two thousand characterization factors were calculated, being available to LCA users, applicable in 32 different land use classes to 74 biogeographic units (SVA). In addition, characterization factors were also obtained for the 27 Brazilian federative units, which, although aggregated in political divisions, consider SOC regional data. Finally, the results and discussions of this study contribute to the integration of two scientific domains and help to better understand the product system, not only focusing on environmental damages, but also enabling the identification of positive impacts and value aggregation.

Marine and coastal ecosystems are subject to diverse and increasingly intensive anthropogenic activities, making understanding cumulative effects critically important. However, accurately accounting for the cumulative effects of human impacts can be difficult, with the possibility of multiple stressors interacting and having greater impacts than expected, compounding direct and indirect effects on individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems. Assessment of multiple stressors therefore requires extensive scientific research that directly tests how single or multiple ecological components are affected by stressors, both singly and when combined, and as a consequence, cumulative effects assessments are now increasingly included in environmental assessments. Currently, there is a need to assess these at larger spatial scales, with additional research also urgently needed on the responses of ecological components, processes and functions to single and cumulative stressors. As cumulative environmental impacts could be better addressed by regional stressor effects assessments that combine methods for predicting multiple pressures on ecosystem recovery alongside degradation, this study used several separate approaches that can be used in parallel to give support for local management measures. I tested four completely different methods - a range of multi-metric indices, a food web model (Ecopath), a predictive model (Ecosim) and a Bayesian Belief Network model. Each approach was tested and compared in two shallow water estuarine systems, in Scotland and England, initially concerning the impact of nutrient enrichment and subsequent recovery and was followed by an investigation of how the addition of multiple stressors (nutrient levels, temperature and river-flow rates) would impact the future state of each system. The response to stressors was highly context dependent, varying between and within geographic locations. Overall, each of the four different approaches complemented each other and gave strong support for the need to make big reductions in the pressures and to consider trade-offs between impacting pressures. The models and tools also indicate that in order to reach an improved overall environmental state of each ecosystem, a focus on nutrient reductions are likely to be the most effective of the controls on stressors explored and that cumulative effects of the management of nutrient inputs and increased water temperatures and river-flow are likely to exist.

Na primeira metade de século XX, tanto os empiristas lógicos quanto os racionalistas popperianos sustentaram que os juízos científicos corretos derivavam de sua conformação a certas regras: indutivas, dedutivas, hipotético-dedutivas ou formalizáveis segundo o cálculo de probabilidades. No entanto, após a emergência de novos trabalhos, como os de Thomas Kuhn, houve um amplo desenvolvimento de abordagens que analisam a inferência científica com base em valores, em vez de regras estabelecidas a priori. A estratégia proposta por Kuhn considera a prática científica e sua história um elemento importante para uma compreensão adequada da racionalidade da ciência. Sua abordagem envolve a consideração de valores cognitivos, tais como fecundidade, consistência e escopo de teorias. Ampliando essa abordagem, estudos mais recentes – a partir da década de 90 e com grande efervescência nos últimos anos – defendem a tese de que o conhecimento científico, além de um produto da atividade social, possui ele mesmo uma dimensão social intrínseca. Poderíamos perguntar, então, em que medida valores não cognitivos, tais como valores morais e sociais, moldam a prática científica; e como esses valores poderiam exercer um papel legítimo ou mesmo contribuir para a produção de conhecimento. Essas questões envolvem o problema, bastante expressivo atualmente (cf. Longino, 2015), sobre a chamada “dimensão social do conhecimento científico”. Neste trabalho, abordo o referido problema no que tange à relação entre valores e atividade científica, utilizando-me, para a construção do artigo aqui presente, a abordagem do filósofo da ciência Hugh Lacey e aplicando-a a um contexto específico: as possibilidades de uso produtivo dos chamados Campos Sulinos. / In the first half of the XXth century, both logical empiricists and popperian rationalists sustained that correct scientific judgements derived from the conformation to certain rules: inductive, deductive, hypothetical-deductive or formalizable according to the calculation of probabilities. However, mainly because of Thomas Kuhn’s works, there was an extensive development of approaches that analyze the scientific inference based on values, rather than on a priori established rules. The proposal of Kuhn considers the scientific practice and history as elements of relevance to the comprehension of science’s rationality. His approach considers cognitive values, such as fecundity, consistence, and scope of theories. Expanding this approach, recent studies – starting in the 90s and with great effervescence in recent years – defend the thesis that scientific knowledge, besides being a product of social activity, features an intrinsic social dimension. We could ask, in what measure noncognitive values, such as moral and social values, shape the scientific practice; and how these values could exercise a legitimate role, or even contribute to the production of knowledge. These questions involve the currently quite significant (cf. Longino, 2015) problem called “social dimension of the scientific knowledge”. In this work, I approach the mentioned question regarding the relation between values and the scientific activity, using the approach of the philosopher of science Hugh Lacey, and applying it to a specific background: the possibilities of the productive use of the south Brazilian native grasslands, know Campos Sulinos.